Core ideas and debates
Each area is a debate. Open it for the question, where the traditions agree, and where they divide. This is the raw material of every essay.
Human Nature›
The debate: Rational and progressive, or driven by belonging and instinct?
Where they agree
All four strands see the nation as central to human identity. All four believe people belong in nations rather than as deracinated individuals or as parts of an undifferentiated humanity. All four believe national membership shapes the human person. The 2022 mark scheme: 'all nationalists believe in the centrality of the nation as a political unit' is itself an area of common ground.
Where they differ
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism take a rational, progressive view of human nature - humans are rational, entitled to dignity and self-rule (Rousseau, Garvey). Conservative nationalism takes a pessimistic, security-seeking view: humans need cultural belonging and a national spirit to feel safe (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism takes a chauvinist view, treating peoples as unequal and the nation as superior to other nations (Maurras). The 2020 mark scheme treats this as a fundamental divide between progressive and regressive nationalism.
The State›
The debate: Civic and inclusive, cultural and exclusive, dominating, or liberating?
Where they agree
All four strands want the state aligned with the nation in some form. All believe in some form of national self-rule, whether civic, cultural, dominant or post-colonial. All reject the idea of a state without a national basis. The 2020 MS: 'all nationalists believe in the centrality of the nation as a political unit.'
Where they differ
Liberal nationalism wants a civic state that all citizens can join through shared political values (Rousseau). Conservative nationalism wants a state that protects and reflects the distinct national culture (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism wants a state that pursues national greatness through dominance over others (Maurras). Anti/post-colonial nationalism wants a state liberated from colonial domination (Garvey). The 2021 MS makes this a four-way divide: 'so the state can be a realm of freedom for some nationalists and a force of oppression for others.'
The Economy›
The debate: Free trade between sovereigns, national protection, dominance, or self-determination?
Where they agree
All four strands see the economy as something with national meaning - the economy is not just a global system but bears the marks of national identity. All four reject pure economic cosmopolitanism that ignores national differences. The disagreements are over what the national economy is for: openness, protection, dominance or liberation.
Where they differ
Liberal nationalism supports free trade between sovereign nations as part of liberal internationalism. Conservative nationalism wants protection of national industries and economic identity (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism pursues economic dominance and imperialism, exploiting other peoples for national strength (Maurras). Anti/post-colonial nationalism seeks economic self-determination, often through nationalising resources previously controlled by colonial powers (Garvey). Note: the economy is not a heavily tested area in nationalism mark schemes - the centre of gravity is the state, society and self-determination.
Society›
The debate: Inclusive civic society or exclusive cultural society?
Where they agree
All four strands believe society is held together by national identity in some form. All four believe a sense of belonging to a nation produces social cohesion - though they disagree on what kind of nation. All reject a society without a national basis. The 2019 MS captures the common ground: 'nationalism is based on the similarities and shared history which unites and binds us together.'
Where they differ
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism want an inclusive civic society where membership is voluntary and based on shared political values (Rousseau). Conservative nationalism wants a society defined by shared culture and traditions, with membership taking time to acquire (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism wants a society based on supposed racial or ethnic purity, hostile to outsiders (Maurras). The 2023 mark scheme treats this exclusive-versus-inclusive split as the central social divide within nationalism.
Nations›
The debate: What is a nation? Defined by shared values, culture, race or shared political community?
Where they agree
All four strands hold the nation to be real and central. All four reject the idea that human beings are best understood as deracinated individuals or as members of an undifferentiated humanity. National belonging shapes the human person on every strand's account.
Where they differ
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism define the nation civically - shared political values and voluntary membership (Rousseau, Garvey). Conservative nationalism defines it culturally - shared history, language, traditions and the volksgeist (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism defines it exclusively, often racially, ranking nations above one another (Maurras). The 2020 MS treats civic versus exclusive as the defining split.
Self-determination›
The debate: Should every nation rule itself? Or only some, or only on conditions?
Where they agree
Three of the four strands believe in self-determination. Even conservative nationalism affirms it for the in-group. Only expansionist nationalism rejects the universal principle. So self-determination is closer to common ground than the textbook splits sometimes suggest.
Where they differ
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism treat self-determination as a universal right (Mazzini, Garvey). Conservative nationalism affirms it for one's own nation but is less universalist (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism rejects universal self-determination - strong nations rule, weaker ones should not (Maurras). The 2022 MS: liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism share 'a rational view that nations have the right to govern themselves free from domination or oppression.'
The nation-state›
The debate: Is the sovereign nation-state the natural and final unit of politics?
Where they agree
All four strands want a state aligned with the nation in some form. None of them want a stateless or post-national world. All four treat the nation-state as the natural political unit, though they disagree on its character and purpose.
Where they differ
Liberal nationalism wants a civic state, sovereign and equal (Mazzini). Conservative nationalism wants a romantic state that embodies the national culture (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism wants a supreme dominant state for imperial expansion (Maurras). Anti/post-colonial nationalism wants the nation-state as a vehicle for liberation from colonial rule (Garvey). The 2021 MS: 'the state can be a realm of freedom for some nationalists and a force of oppression for others.'
Culturalism›
The debate: Is the nation built on shared culture, language and tradition - mystical and emotional?
Where they agree
Three of the four strands take culture seriously in defining the nation - even anti/post-colonial nationalism reasserts cultural identity. Only liberal nationalism is cool on culturalism, preferring civic bonds. So cultural pride is wider common ground than first appears.
Where they differ
Liberal nationalism is cool on culturalism - the bond is civic, not cultural (Rousseau). Conservative nationalism puts it at the heart: volksgeist, shared traditions, romantic emotion (von Herder). Expansionist nationalism takes cultural pride to a hostile extreme of superiority (Maurras). Anti/post-colonial nationalism reasserts the cultural identity colonialism suppressed (Garvey). The 2019 MS captures conservative culturalism: 'shared culture is a force for unity.'
Racialism›
The debate: Is the nation defined by biological race? A minority view confined to expansionist nationalism.
Where they agree
Most strands of nationalism reject racialism. The 9PL0 spec stresses that racialism is 'held by a very small group of nationalists' - confined to expansionist nationalism. The shared position across the other three strands is that nationhood is not biological.
Where they differ
Three of the four strands reject racialism. Liberal nationalism rejects it explicitly - the nation is civic, not biological. Conservative nationalism rejects it in principle - belonging is cultural, not racial. Anti/post-colonial nationalism rejects racial hierarchy and instead asserts the equal moral worth of all peoples (Garvey). Only expansionist nationalism contains racialist variants (Maurras). The 9PL0 spec is clear: racialism is 'the view held by a very small group of nationalists.'
Internationalism›
The debate: Should nations cooperate across borders, or is the nation the limit of political loyalty?
Where they agree
All four strands take the nation as the primary political unit. None propose abolishing nations in favour of a world community. The shared starting point is national loyalty; the disagreement is whether nations should cooperate as equals, dominate, or stand apart.
Where they differ
Liberal nationalism is warm to liberal internationalism - cooperation between sovereign nation-states (Mazzini). Conservative nationalism is cool, prioritising national cohesion and suspicious of supranational bodies. Expansionist nationalism is hostile - the international order is a contest for dominance (Maurras). Anti/post-colonial nationalism is sympathetic to pan-national solidarity (Garvey) but suspicious of liberal internationalism that masks neo-colonial dependency.