When people accept that those in charge have the right to make decisions and exercise power over them.

A system where citizens vote on important issues themselves, rather than leaving decisions to elected representatives.

A system where people choose someone to make decisions on their behalf, such as an MP.

A type of democracy where many different groups compete to influence government decisions, so no single group dominates.

When the people making decisions lack proper accountability or a genuine mandate from the public.

When large numbers of citizens stop engaging with politics, for example by not voting or joining parties.

The right to vote in elections.

Independent research organisations that produce policy ideas and advice, often with a political leaning.

People paid to try to influence politicians and government decisions on behalf of clients or organisations.

The traditional Labour approach: nationalising key industries, redistributing wealth from rich to poor, and building a strong welfare state.

Tony Blair's modernised Labour approach, which accepted free markets but also invested heavily in public services, blending left and right ideas.

A Conservative idea that society should be held together by shared duty, with the wealthy taking responsibility for those less well-off.

A strand of Conservatism combining free-market economics (low taxes, minimal government) with traditional social values such as law and order.

Early liberal thinkers who believed individuals should be as free as possible from government interference, especially in the economy.

Liberal thinkers who believe the government should actively support people so they have the real conditions needed to be free and flourish.

The overall pattern of how political parties compete in a country, such as whether it has two dominant parties or many.

A political outlook that supports change, greater equality, and a bigger role for the state in reducing inequality.

A political outlook that favours tradition, stability, and less government involvement in the economy.

The UK's main voting system: whoever gets the most votes in a constituency wins, even without a majority.

A voting system that combines local constituency seats (like FPTP) with a proportional top-up of seats from party lists.

A voting system where voters rank candidates in order of preference; votes are transferred until enough candidates reach a set quota.

A voting system where voters pick a first and second choice; if no one wins outright, only the top two go to a deciding count.

A constituency where one party has such a large majority that it is very unlikely to change hands at an election.

A constituency where the winning party holds a small majority, so another party could easily win it at the next election.

A government that holds office without a majority of seats in Parliament, so it must negotiate harder to pass laws.

A government formed by two or more parties working together, usually because no single party won enough seats on its own.

The weakening connection between social class and how people vote, so working-class voters no longer automatically support Labour.

The weakening loyalty voters feel towards a particular party, meaning more people are willing to switch parties between elections.

How capable the public believes the government is at managing important issues such as the economy or public services.

A growing sense among citizens that politics cannot change things, leading them to disengage and stop participating.

A document published by a political party before an election, setting out the policies it promises to carry out if it wins.

The authority a winning party claims to implement its manifesto promises, because voters chose it at the election.

The Conservative belief that society naturally organises itself into different levels of authority and status, which provides stability.

The idea that people in positions of power deserve respect and obedience, because this order keeps society stable.

The idea that some gradual change is necessary to protect the most important aspects of society, rather than resisting all change.

The New Right idea that society is made up of independent, self-sufficient individuals rather than a connected whole.

A French phrase meaning that the wealthy and privileged have a duty to help and protect those less fortunate.

The view that society needs clear moral rules and that excessive personal freedom in lifestyle choices leads to social breakdown.

The Conservative belief that humans are naturally flawed and cannot be trusted with unlimited freedom, which is why authority and tradition are needed.

The idea that the government should interfere as little as possible in the economy, leaving the free market to operate without restriction.

The belief that decisions should be based on real experience and evidence, rather than grand theories or abstract ideologies.

The idea that all human beings are born with equal worth and should have the same basic rights, regardless of background.

The idea that everyone should be treated equally in the eyes of the law and have the same political rights, such as the right to vote.

The idea that everyone should have a fair chance to succeed in life, even if the outcomes will still differ depending on talent and effort.

The idea that people implicitly agree to give up some freedoms in exchange for the protection and order that government provides.

A society where people succeed based on their talent and hard work, rather than their background or connections.

The idea that the state was deliberately created by people to serve their needs, so its power is limited to what they have agreed to give it.

Accepting and respecting the views, beliefs, and lifestyles of others, even when you disagree with them.

The idea that government power must be restricted by laws and checks, so it cannot become a tyranny.

The classical liberal idea that individuals are naturally self-interested, and that this drive is something to be respected and protected.

The modern liberal idea that freedom means more than just being left alone - it means having the opportunity to grow and develop as a person.

Freedom understood as the absence of interference from others or the government, being left alone to do as you choose.

Freedom understood as having the real ability and resources to live a fulfilling life, not just the absence of restraint.

An economic system where markets operate freely without government interference, and prices and wages are determined by supply and demand.

The economic theory that governments should spend and invest during recessions to boost the economy, rather than cutting back.

John Stuart Mill's idea that people should be free to do as they wish, as long as their actions do not harm others.

The idea that government should do only the bare minimum: protecting people's rights and enforcing contracts, and nothing more.

A larger government role that helps people achieve their potential, for example through education, healthcare, and welfare support.

The socialist idea that people are bound together by a sense of shared humanity and brotherhood, not just individual self-interest.

Working together for shared benefit, rather than competing against each other as capitalism encourages.

An economic system based on private ownership, free markets, and profit, where businesses compete to sell goods and services.

The idea that key industries or resources should be owned collectively (often through the state), not by private individuals.

A political and economic system aiming for a classless society where all property is shared equally, most closely associated with Marx.

The belief that socialism can be achieved gradually through elections and Parliament, without the need for violent revolution.

A theory based on Karl Marx's ideas that capitalism exploits workers and will eventually be overthrown by a working-class revolution.

The rethinking of traditional socialist ideas, usually by moving away from nationalisation and revolution towards more moderate reforms.

The fair distribution of wealth and opportunities in society, so that inequality is reduced and everyone can live a decent life.

The awareness workers have of their shared identity and interests as an exploited group under capitalism.

Marx's idea that the way society is organised, and how it changes over time, is driven by how people produce goods and wealth.

The Marxist idea that history moves forward through conflict between opposing forces, eventually producing a new situation.

The approach of using government spending to manage the economy, boost employment, and prevent deep recessions.

The set of fundamental rules that determine how a country is governed, where power lies, and what rights citizens have.

Unentrenched means the constitution can be changed through normal law-making; entrenched means a special process is required to change it.

Uncodified means the constitution is not written in one single document; codified means it is all contained in one authoritative text.

A unitary system keeps all legal power with the central government; federal splits power between central and regional governments.

The principle that Parliament is the UK's supreme legal authority and can make, change, or repeal any law.

The principle that everyone, including the government, must obey the law and no one is above it.

Laws that have been formally passed by Parliament through the legislative process.

Law developed by judges through their decisions in court cases, rather than by Parliament passing legislation.

Unwritten political rules and traditions that are generally followed, even though they are not legally enforceable.

Important books and texts, such as Erskine May, that are treated as reliable guides to how the constitution operates.

Formal agreements between countries, which the UK government signs and which usually require parliamentary approval.

The transfer of power from central government to regional bodies such as the Scottish Parliament or Welsh Senedd, while Westminster keeps overall sovereignty.

The UK's law-making body, made up of the House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the Monarch.

The elected lower chamber of Parliament, where MPs sit and where most legislation originates and is passed.

The unelected upper chamber of Parliament, made up mainly of life peers, which scrutinises and can delay legislation.

An arrangement where a smaller party agrees to support a minority government on key votes (like the budget) without forming a full coalition.

The unwritten rule that the House of Lords will not block legislation that was clearly promised in the governing party's election manifesto.

The right of MPs and Lords to speak freely in Parliament without fear of being sued for what they say there.

Proposed laws that go through a series of debates and votes in Parliament before becoming Acts of Parliament.

Groups of MPs that examine proposed legislation in detail and suggest amendments before it progresses further.

MPs or Lords who do not hold any government or official opposition role, and sit behind the front benches.

Cross-party groups of MPs that scrutinise the work of specific government departments and publish findings and recommendations.

The parties in Parliament that are not in government, whose main role is to challenge and hold the government to account.

The part of government responsible for running the country and implementing laws, including the Prime Minister, Cabinet, and departments.

The most senior group of ministers, chaired by the Prime Minister, who collectively make major government decisions.

A senior politician appointed by the PM to lead or assist in running a government department.

A section of the executive responsible for a specific area of policy, such as education or defence.

Powers traditionally belonging to the Monarch that are now exercised by the Prime Minister, such as declaring war or appointing ministers.

Laws made by ministers using powers granted to them by Parliament, without needing a full Act of Parliament each time.

The principle that ministers are personally accountable for the actions of their department and should resign over serious mistakes.

The principle that all Cabinet ministers must publicly support government decisions, even if they disagreed with them in private.

A style of governing where one individual dominates decision-making well above the rest of the executive, like a president.

The highest court in the UK, which hears the most important legal cases and decides whether government actions are lawful.

The principle that judges should make decisions based only on the law, not on their personal or political opinions.

The principle that judges must be free from political pressure and interference when making their decisions.

The process by which courts can examine government decisions and declare them unlawful if they breach the law.

A term describing a government with such a large parliamentary majority that it can pass almost anything it wants, with Parliament offering little real check.

A political and economic union of (currently 27) European countries that share laws, a single market, and common institutions.

The founding principles of the EU single market: free movement of goods, services, money, and people between member states.

The formal right to make and enforce laws within a territory; in the UK this belongs to Parliament.

The real, practical ability to exercise power, which may not always match the formal legal right.

A Latin term meaning 'beyond the powers' - when a body acts outside the legal authority it has been given.

From an anarchist viewpoint, power is the means by which some people dominate and control others, and must be abolished.

Anarchists see authority as the unjustified right of some to command others, which they reject unless it is freely agreed to.

Anarchists see government as a system of organised control that enforces the will of the powerful over ordinary people.

Anarchists see the state as a coercive institution that maintains inequality and must be abolished for people to be truly free.

Acting for the benefit of others rather than yourself; anarchists believe this comes naturally once oppressive structures are removed.

The ability to govern yourself and make your own decisions, free from external control.

Taking political action outside formal channels, such as protests, strikes, or occupations, to bring about change directly.

A movement that aims to replace the state and capitalism with worker-controlled organisations through strikes and direct action.

A sense of unity and shared commitment among people working towards a common goal, especially among workers or oppressed groups.

An anarchist economic idea where people exchange goods and services fairly and equally, without profit or exploitation.

The replacement of private ownership with collective, community ownership of property and the means of production.

The anarchist idea, linked to Kropotkin, that cooperation and helping each other is natural to humans and more effective than competition.

A sudden, individual act of rebellion against authority, not aimed at seizing power but at expressing personal defiance.

A way of organising society around large-scale factory production and economic growth, which ecologists see as damaging to the planet.

A culture that encourages buying and consuming goods as the main route to happiness, which ecologists criticise as environmentally unsustainable.

Using the Earth's resources in a way that meets today's needs without making it impossible for future generations to meet theirs.

A deep awareness of your connection to and dependence on the natural world, and a personal commitment to protecting it.

The idea that environmental problems can be solved within the existing market system, through eco-friendly businesses and green investment.

The Enlightenment view that nature is like a machine there for humans to understand, control, and exploit for their own benefit.

The idea that the Earth's resources are finite, so indefinite economic growth is impossible and will eventually have to stop.

Moving power and decision-making away from central governments and large institutions towards local communities.

A view that places nature and all living things at the centre of moral value, rather than treating the environment only as a resource for humans.

A view that places humans at the centre of everything, treating the natural world as existing purely for human use and benefit.

The variety of plant and animal species in a given area; ecologists see rich biodiversity as essential to a healthy ecosystem.

An alternative economic approach based on Buddhist philosophy that focuses on human wellbeing and living in harmony with nature, rather than maximising profit.

The radical green idea that all living things have equal moral worth and an equal right to live and flourish, not just humans.

The areas of life considered open and political, such as work, government, and public institutions.

The areas of life considered personal and domestic, such as the home and family; feminists argue these are also political.

The belief that men and women are fundamentally different by nature, not just as a result of social expectations and upbringing.

Assumptions about how men and women should behave that society reinforces and that limit people's choices and freedom.

Treating someone less fairly because of who they are, such as their gender, race, or sexuality.

The Marxist feminist idea that women are used as a flexible and cheap workforce that can be brought in or pushed out depending on economic need.

The goal of treating all genders equally and removing the structural barriers that prevent women from having the same opportunities as men.

A form of feminism that celebrates distinctly female values, such as care and cooperation, and argues these should replace the dominant masculine culture.

The idea that feminist activism has come in distinct phases: first wave (votes for women), second wave (equality at work and home), third wave (broader identity issues).

Simone de Beauvoir's concept that women have been defined as the 'other', the opposite of the male norm, which is used to justify their subordination.

The debate within feminism about whether women should seek to be equal to men on men's terms, or whether their differences should be recognised and valued.

The idea that people face multiple, overlapping forms of discrimination, such as sexism and racism together, which cannot be separated from each other.

The shared values, beliefs, customs, and ways of life of a group of people, passed down through generations.

The presence of people from many different backgrounds, cultures, and identities within a society.

Political activity organised around shared group identities, such as race, gender, or sexuality, rather than broader class or economic interests.

The view that migrants and minorities should integrate by adapting individually to the majority culture, on their own terms.

The view that integration should be a two-way process, where both the majority and minority groups adapt and change together.

The process by which migrants or minorities abandon their own cultural practices and adopt the norms of the majority society.

The situation where different ethnic or cultural groups live and interact separately, rather than mixing with each other.

The idea that individuals from both minority and majority groups should freely interact and mix, creating a constantly evolving shared culture.

Giving preferential treatment to groups that have historically been disadvantaged, in order to correct long-standing structural inequalities.

The idea that there is no single correct way of life and that different cultures can hold equally valid and worthwhile values.

Rights that belong to a specific group rather than to individuals, for example rights protecting an indigenous community's culture.

The idea that certain rights and values apply to all people everywhere, regardless of their cultural background or nationality.

A form of nationalism based on shared citizenship and political values: anyone who accepts a nation's laws and values can belong to it.

The idea that nations should cooperate, respect each other's sovereignty, and work through international institutions to maintain peace.

The idea that working-class people across all countries share the same interests and should unite globally rather than dividing along national lines.

A shared sense of identity based on common culture, language, history, or ancestry.

A form of nationalism that is open and welcoming: people from any background can join the national community.

A form of nationalism that places strict conditions on who belongs to the nation, often based on ethnicity or place of birth.

An extreme nationalism that sees one's own nation as superior to others and can justify aggressive or hostile policies towards other countries.

The practice of extending one country's power over others through conquest, settlement, or economic control.

A German term meaning the 'spirit of the people': the unique shared identity, culture, and character that defines a nation.

An extreme and aggressive form of nationalism where individuals are completely subordinate to the nation; associated with fascism.

A movement calling for Black people to take pride in their identity and build their own political and economic independence.

When politicians from different parties work together to pass legislation, rather than opposing each other along strict party lines.

The system where each branch of US government (legislature, executive, judiciary) can limit the powers of the others, preventing any one from becoming too dominant.

Writing the rules of government down in one clear, authoritative document.

The protection of the US Constitution from easy change: amendments require two-thirds of Congress and three-quarters of states to agree.

The specific powers listed in the US Constitution that belong to the federal government, such as the right to declare war or coin money.

The US system where power is divided between the national (federal) government and the 50 individual state governments.

The principle that the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government are kept separate and independent from each other.

Groups of members of Congress who share a particular interest or political identity and meet to coordinate their work.

When the President is from a different party to the majority in one or both chambers of Congress, making it much harder to pass laws.

A tactic in the US Senate where a senator gives a very long speech to delay or prevent a vote on legislation.

When the US political system is so divided between President and Congress that little or no major legislation can be passed.

The advantage held by the person already in office during an election: they are already known to voters and have established funding networks.

Congressional elections held two years into a presidential term, which often act as a public verdict on the President's performance.

The power of Congress to monitor, investigate, and hold accountable the executive branch and its agencies.

When politicians vote consistently along strict party lines rather than making independent judgements, making compromise very difficult.

Instructions issued directly by the US President that have the force of law, without needing Congress to pass new legislation.

A description of the US presidency when it is seen as having accumulated too much power, bypassing the checks designed to limit it.

A description of the US presidency when it is seen as too weak to govern effectively, constrained by Congress, the courts, and other pressures.

Powers the President exercises in practice that are not written in the Constitution, such as dominating the media or negotiating with party leaders.

The President's ability to use personal authority, charm, and political skill to convince Congress and others to support their agenda.

When the President's party controls both chambers of Congress, making it far easier to pass legislation.

The authority a newly elected President claims to govern according to the policies they campaigned on, based on their election victory.

A Supreme Court justice who interprets the Constitution narrowly and cautiously, generally deferring to elected lawmakers and established precedent.

A judiciary seen as too powerful, making decisions that should properly be left to elected politicians.

An approach where judges interpret the law broadly and are willing to use their rulings to bring about social or political change.

An approach where judges interpret the law narrowly, respecting precedent and deferring to elected bodies rather than making policy themselves.

The power of the US Supreme Court to strike down laws passed by Congress or actions by the executive if they violate the Constitution.

A Supreme Court justice who interprets the Constitution broadly and is more willing to use rulings to protect individual rights and drive social change.

The idea that the US Constitution should be interpreted in light of modern circumstances and values, not just what it meant in 1787.

The idea that the US Constitution should be interpreted according to the original meaning it had when written, not adapted to fit modern values.

The legal principle that courts should follow previous decisions (precedents) when ruling on similar cases, to keep the law consistent.

Strict construction means reading the Constitution narrowly; loose construction means reading it more broadly to allow wider government action.

The Supreme Court justice whose vote is most unpredictable, as they do not consistently side with either the conservative or liberal bloc.

Policies that give preferential treatment in education or employment to groups that have historically faced discrimination, such as Black Americans.

The money raised and spent to support political candidates and parties during election campaigns.

The different ideological wings within the two main US parties, for example progressives and moderates within the Democratic Party.

The period before formal primaries begin where candidates try to raise money, build media profiles, and secure endorsements.

An organisation that raises and spends money to support or oppose candidates, subject to legal limits on donations.

Like PACs, but with no legal limit on fundraising or spending, as long as they do not directly coordinate with candidates.

Hard money is donated directly to a candidate within legal limits; soft money goes to parties or groups and faces fewer restrictions.

A politically active conservative movement in the US, mainly evangelical Christians, who back Republican candidates and socially conservative policies.

The supreme authority to make and enforce laws within a territory, free from outside control.

A political unit where the population shares a common identity and is governed by one government within defined borders.

Organisations or groups that play a role in international relations but are not governments, such as multinational companies, NGOs, or terrorist groups.

The process by which the world becomes increasingly connected through trade, communication, technology, migration, and shared culture.

The growing integration of national economies through trade, investment, and the rise of multinational corporations.

The growing influence of international organisations and treaties over what national governments can do.

The spread of ideas, values, and ways of life around the world, often driven by the internet and global media.

The concern that globalisation is making all cultures increasingly similar, eroding local traditions and identities.

The idea of a single global political authority with the power to make and enforce laws across all countries.

The informal system of international rules, organisations, and agreements that tries to manage global problems without a world government.

Independent organisations not run by governments that work on issues like human rights, poverty, or the environment, such as Oxfam.

Conditions attached to IMF loans requiring developing countries to cut public spending, privatise industries, and open up their markets.

An international organisation founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation, with 193 member states.

The most powerful body of the UN, responsible for international peace and security, with five permanent members who each have a veto.

A military alliance of North American and European countries who agree to defend each other if any member is attacked.

An international organisation that provides financial help to countries in economic difficulty and works to keep global finance stable.

An international organisation that provides loans and grants to developing countries to fund development projects and reduce poverty.

The international body that sets the rules for trade between countries and resolves disputes when they arise.

An informal group of seven of the world's largest economies that meets to discuss major global economic and political challenges.

A group of twenty major economies, including emerging nations like China and India, that meets to coordinate responses to global economic problems.

The economic and political gap between wealthier countries in the global North and poorer countries in the global South.

The idea that wealthy countries maintain their power by keeping poorer countries economically dependent on them.

Rules and agreements that govern how countries and other international actors behave towards each other.

The main court of the UN, which settles legal disputes between countries.

A court that puts individuals on trial for the most serious international crimes, such as genocide and war crimes.

Courts set up to deal with specific conflicts, such as those dealing with war crimes in the former Yugoslavia.

Basic rights and freedoms that all people are entitled to, simply by being human.

The idea that human rights apply to every person, everywhere, regardless of nationality, culture, or national law.

Military action taken against a state, without its consent, to protect civilians from mass atrocities or serious human rights abuses.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: an international treaty in which countries commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: the UN body that gathers and assesses the science of climate change to guide international action.

Areas and resources that no single country owns, such as the oceans, the atmosphere, and Antarctica.

The idea that when a shared resource is open to all and nobody is in charge of it, individuals will overuse it until it is destroyed.

Development that meets people's needs today without preventing future generations from meeting their own needs.

The use of military force or economic pressure to get other countries to do what you want.

The ability to influence other countries through attraction and persuasion rather than force, for example through culture, values, or diplomacy.

A state with enough military, economic, and political strength to play a major role in international affairs.

The most powerful state(s) in the world, able to project influence globally; currently the US, and increasingly China.

A state growing rapidly in economic and political strength and taking on a bigger role in global affairs, such as India or Brazil.

The way power is distributed in the international system: whether one, two, or many states hold dominant power.

A world order dominated by a single superpower, as seen after the Cold War when the US stood alone as the leading global power.

A world order divided between two major powers competing for global influence, as with the US and USSR during the Cold War.

A world order in which power is spread across three or more major states, making international relations more complex and unpredictable.

A country whose government has collapsed or is so weak it can no longer provide basic services, law and order, or control its own territory.

A country seen as threatening international peace and security, typically because it supports terrorism or pursues weapons of mass destruction.

The development of political and economic cooperation among countries within a particular geographic area.

The process by which European countries have gradually created shared institutions, laws, and policies, pooling some of their sovereignty.

A system where countries transfer some of their decision-making power to a higher authority that can make binding decisions above national governments.

Cooperation between sovereign states where each keeps its independence and major decisions require agreement from all.

The tension in the EU between expanding to more member states (widening) and increasing the powers and integration of existing members (deepening).

The theory that international relations is driven by states pursuing their own power and security in a world with no overarching authority.

The theory that international relations can be cooperative, that trade and institutions can promote peace, and that states can work together.

The condition of the international system where there is no world government above states, so each must ultimately fend for itself.

The situation where one state builds up its military to feel safer, which makes other states feel threatened and do the same, leaving everyone less secure.

The theory that states are linked by so many economic and social ties that conflict becomes very costly and cooperation becomes more likely.

Hedley Bull's idea that even without a world government, states form a loose society with shared norms and rules that they generally follow.

Older forms of media such as newspapers, television, and radio, which broadcast content to large, generally passive audiences.

Digital media platforms such as websites, online news, and streaming services that allow more interactive and personalised consumption of content.

Online platforms such as Twitter/X, Instagram, and TikTok where users create and share content, increasingly important in political campaigning.

A situation, often on social media, where people are exposed mainly to views that match their own, reinforcing existing beliefs.

A model of voting where people choose based on their overall sense of which party is most competent and trustworthy, rather than specific policies.

How important voters consider a particular issue: the more important it is to them, the more it shapes how they vote.

The theory that voters behave like rational consumers, comparing parties' policies and choosing the one that best serves their interests.

The theory that most voters develop a long-term emotional attachment to a party (like supporting a football club) that shapes their voting over time.

The process by which people develop their political values and beliefs, mainly through family, school, friends, and media.

Voters who have no strong loyalty to any party and are willing to switch between them depending on the issues at a given election.

A group of traditionally Labour-voting constituencies in the North of England, the Midlands, and Wales that switched to the Conservatives in 2019.

A group of traditionally Conservative-voting, affluent constituencies in the South of England and commuter belts that became more competitive for the Liberal Democrats.

A term describing a claimed surge in youth voter turnout in the 2017 general election, linked to enthusiasm for Jeremy Corbyn's Labour Party.

Online petitions submitted through the government website; if they reach 100,000 signatures, Parliament must consider debating the subject.

Another word for a referendum: a direct public vote on a specific question.

A form of direct democracy where citizens can propose a law themselves by collecting enough signatures, though this is not used in the UK.

The right of all adult citizens to vote in elections, regardless of gender, race, or wealth.

The 1215 charter that first established the principle that even the monarch must obey the law and that citizens have certain basic rights.

The legal right not to be imprisoned without a fair trial, protecting citizens from being locked up arbitrarily by the state.

The traditional UK approach to rights, where citizens are free to do anything not specifically banned by law.

A ruling by a UK higher court that a law conflicts with the Human Rights Act, though Parliament can still choose to keep the law.

The broad agreement between the main parties from 1945 to the late 1970s on maintaining the welfare state, the NHS, and a mixed economy.

The Conservative idea that society is not just a collection of individuals but a living whole, where each part has a role and depends on the others.

The idea, linked to One Nation Conservatism, that those with power have a duty to protect and look after those without, in a firm but caring way.

A political philosophy that says individuals are shaped by and have responsibilities to their community, not just their own personal interests.

A New Labour idea that all members of society should have a real stake in its success, through employment, investment, and active participation.

Public funding given to opposition parties in the House of Commons to help them carry out their parliamentary duties.

Public funding given to opposition parties in the House of Lords to help them carry out scrutiny and parliamentary work.

A political system dominated by two main parties that take turns in government, as has broadly been the case in the UK and the US.

A political system where more than two parties regularly compete for power and win significant representation.

A term linked to Keir Starmer's Labour economic approach, emphasising stability, security, and fiscal discipline over bold redistribution.

The movement of individuals between senior government roles and well-paid private sector jobs, raising concerns about conflicts of interest.

Pressure groups that represent the interests of a specific section of society, such as a trade union or a business association.

Pressure groups that campaign for a particular issue or cause rather than for their own members' narrow interests, such as Greenpeace.

Pressure groups that have close and regular access to government ministers and civil servants, allowing them to shape policy from within.

Pressure groups that lack regular access to government and instead try to influence policy through public campaigns and media pressure.

When a government body or regulator becomes so influenced by the industry it oversees that it ends up acting in that industry's interests rather than the public's.

A government consultation document that sets out ideas or proposals for new policy and invites responses from the public and interested groups.

The theory that political power in a democracy is spread across many different groups and interests, with none permanently dominating.

The theory that political power is concentrated in the hands of a small, privileged group who act in their own interests regardless of democratic structures.

Having two separate chambers in Parliament - in the UK, the Commons and the Lords.

A formal vote in Parliament where MPs walk through different doors to vote yes or no.

The first stage of a bill in Parliament - just its formal introduction with no debate yet.

The main debate on what a bill is trying to do, before it goes to committee for detailed examination.

When the full House reviews changes made by the committee and can add further amendments.

The final vote on a bill - Parliament decides whether to pass the whole thing as amended.

A vote where MPs can choose how to vote based on their own conscience rather than party orders.

An MP with a government or shadow government role, sitting on the front row of the chamber.

The blending of government and Parliament so that ministers must be MPs and govern through Parliament.

The ceremonial leader of a country - in the UK, the King, who has no real political power.

A lord whose seat in the Lords was passed down through their family. All were removed by 2024.

An old parliamentary procedure that can force the government to hand over documents. Still used today.

A committee of all select committee chairs that can call the Prime Minister to answer questions.

A lord appointed for their lifetime only - their title does not pass to their children.

MPs who vote however the whip tells them, without thinking for themselves.

The rulebook for ministers setting out how they must behave - but the PM decides if it has been broken.

Regular sessions where ministers must answer questions from MPs about their department's work.

A deal between two MPs from different parties both to miss a vote, so neither side gains an advantage.

A system where the government comes from Parliament and can be removed by it. The UK's system.

MPs in government jobs who must vote with the government or lose their position.

A lord appointed for merit and public service rather than political connections.

When a bill goes back and forth between Commons and Lords as they disagree on changes.

The idea that the PM is just the most senior minister, not a president above the Cabinet.

A bill introduced by a backbench MP, not the government. Rarely becomes law without government backing.

The formal suspension of Parliament between sessions. The 2019 prorogation under Johnson was ruled unlawful.

The idea that government must answer to Parliament for everything it does.

The King's formal signature that turns a bill into law. Always given - it is a formality.

A parliament that just approves whatever the government wants without real scrutiny.

Parliament's job of checking, questioning and challenging what the government does.

Blair's style of making key decisions in informal meetings rather than through the full Cabinet.

The chair of the House of Commons who keeps order, calls MPs to speak and must be politically neutral.

The idea that MPs are elected to use their own judgement, not to follow voters' orders.

A last-minute question that forces a minister to appear in Parliament that day to explain themselves.

A vote testing whether the government still has MPs' support. If it loses, the government may fall.

A formal vote saying Parliament no longer trusts the government. Loss can bring down the government.

Debates in a second chamber of Parliament, mainly used by backbench MPs to raise issues without a vote.

A party official who makes sure MPs vote the right way. Also the written instruction about upcoming votes.

A government document showing what law it plans to introduce. More definite than a Green Paper.

How FPTP gives winning parties far more seats than their share of the vote - turbocharging majorities.

A lord who actually turns up and takes part, as opposed to peers who rarely or never attend.

The 2010 reforms that let MPs elect their own select committee chairs and gave backbenchers more control of debates.

A Parliament that is meeting but cannot get laws passed - often because the government has lost its majority.

Senior Cabinet ministers powerful enough to challenge the PM - not just loyal supporters.

A smaller group of ministers handling a specific policy area before it goes to the full Cabinet.

A system of government where the Cabinet as a group makes the key decisions, not just the PM.

The official rulebook for how Cabinet government and ministers should operate.

The central department that keeps the government organised, coordinating work across all ministries.

The top civil servant who runs the Cabinet Office and advises the PM on how government works.

The small group of ministers the PM actually trusts and consults most - not an official body.

A PM who lets ministers get on with their jobs and does not try to control everything from the centre.

The PM's power to appoint people to jobs and the Lords - which can be used to reward loyalty.

The elected government ministers and their political appointees, as opposed to the permanent civil service.

The way UK PMs have started to act more like presidents - leading from the front as an individual.

The team of staff directly supporting the PM at Downing Street, including political advisers.

A political adviser employed by a minister - not a civil servant, appointed for their political loyalty or expertise.

A communications expert who manages how the media covers a politician, trying to control the story.

A PM who governs through deals and rewards rather than a strong ideological vision.

A PM who genuinely changes the direction of the country based on a strong political vision.

Rights that can never be taken away under any circumstances - like the ban on torture.

Being answerable for decisions and actions to those affected by them.

The confrontational style of UK politics, where parties face each other and compete to win arguments.

The ability to decide which issues politicians and the public pay attention to.

When people support a candidate just because they seem to be winning.

The formula deciding how much money Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland get from the UK government.

A document listing fundamental rights that the state must protect. In the UK, the Human Rights Act serves this function.

A party that includes people with quite different political views under one tent.

A one-seat election held between general elections to fill a vacancy.

A party that tries to appeal to everyone, not just its traditional supporters.

Being a legally recognised member of a country with rights like voting and responsibilities like obeying the law.

Deliberately breaking a law as a political protest, accepting the punishment to highlight an injustice.

Freedoms that stop the state from interfering in your life - like free speech and the right to a fair trial.

The old pattern where working-class people voted Labour and middle-class people voted Conservative.

Signing online petitions or sharing political posts - quick, easy political activity that may not achieve much.

The agreement of people to be governed. Without it, government lacks legitimacy.

The geographic area an MP represents. Each of the UK's 650 areas elects one MP.

An unwritten rule that politicians are expected to follow even though it has no legal force.

A monarchy where the king or queen has only ceremonial powers - all real decisions are made by elected politicians.

Planned changes to the rules and structures that govern how a country is run.

A loyal party voter who almost always votes the same way regardless of circumstances.

An unaffiliated member of the Lords who votes on their own judgement, not a party line.

The idea that sovereignty belongs to Parliament as a whole - King, Commons and Lords together.

A trading area where members have no tariffs between themselves but the same tariffs on outside countries.

Political adverts on social media that only the target audience can see - hard to scrutinise or regulate.

The idea that MPs should simply carry out what their voters tell them, without using their own judgement.

Government by the people, either directly or through elected representatives.

A detailed assessment of how well a country's democracy is actually working in practice.

Authority that comes from winning free, fair elections. Institutions without this can be challenged.

Removing government rules on businesses - a key feature of Thatcherite and free-market economic policy.

The idea that Parliament should look like the country it represents - same mix of genders, ethnicities etc.

An elected parliament in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland with powers to make laws in certain areas.

Bagehot's term for the ceremonial parts of the constitution - like the monarchy - that inspire loyalty but have no real power.

The idea that winning an election gives a party the right to carry out its manifesto promises.

When one party keeps winning elections even though opposition parties still exist and compete.

Signing up to be on the electoral register so you can vote. Required before participating in elections.

How much voters move between parties between elections. Increasing as party loyalty weakens.

The idea that working-class people who become more prosperous start voting and behaving like the middle class.

A last-minute debate in Parliament on an urgent issue, granted by the Speaker at an MP's request.

A 2015 rule giving English MPs a veto on England-only laws. Abolished in 2021 as too complicated.

The goal of making results equal across groups, not just giving everyone the same starting point.

Scepticism about or opposition to the EU and European integration - from mild concern to wanting to leave entirely.

A survey of voters as they leave polling stations, used to predict the result before counting is done.

Made-up stories designed to look like real news. Spread rapidly on social media.

The way social media algorithms only show you content you agree with, cutting you off from other views.

An election where all 650 MPs are elected at once. The main way the UK chooses its government.

The way most political activity happens through groups rather than individuals acting alone.

Media bias that is not obvious or declared but shows up in what stories get covered and how.

Awards including peerages, knighthoods and medals given by the King, usually on the PM's recommendation.

A parliamentary motion that can force the government to hand over documents. Archaic but still powerful.

A set of political beliefs about how society should be organised. Conservatism, socialism and liberalism are all ideologies.

Rights belonging to each person individually, not to groups. A core idea in liberal political thinking.

Voting for a party to get a result you want, not because you really support them.

Voting based on what a party promises to do about a specific issue that matters to you.

The independent body that selects judges on merit, replacing the old system of PM/Lord Chancellor patronage.

The obligation of ministers to ensure their department acts within the law.

Giving a devolved parliament the power to make its own laws in certain policy areas.

The body that makes laws. In the UK this is Parliament - Commons, Lords and the Crown.

An electoral system where you vote for a party and seats are divided up proportionally from party lists.

Elections to councils and local mayors. Often used to judge how the government is doing mid-term.

When media coverage systematically favours one political side - either openly or through framing choices.

A directly elected mayor covering a whole city-region like Greater Manchester, with powers over transport and housing.

An economy with both private businesses and significant government involvement and public ownership.

Countries sharing the same currency and the same interest rate policy - like the Eurozone.

A bill about tax or spending. The Lords can only delay it for one month under the Parliament Acts.

The power of a country to block a decision in an international organisation like the EU by simply saying no.

The government taking over private industries to run them publicly. Labour did this extensively after 1945.

An electoral system where seats are not shared out in proportion to votes - FPTP is the main example.

When a media outlet openly declares its political support - like a newspaper endorsing a party.

When social groups - especially classes - consistently vote for the same party over time.

Government led by a disciplined party following through on its manifesto promises.

The ranked list of candidates a party offers voters in a proportional election - voters pick the party.

The MPs with government jobs who are expected to vote with the government or lose their posts.

An umbrella body representing many organisations in the same sector - like the CBI for business.

When a bill bounces back and forth between Commons and Lords as they disagree on wording.

An electoral system where the person with the most votes wins - even without a majority. FPTP is a plurality system.

A survey asking what people think about a specific policy - separate from asking how they would vote.

All the ways citizens get involved in politics - from voting to protesting to contacting MPs.

Ministers must answer to Parliament for the political decisions of their departments, not just legal ones.

The deepest form of integration between countries - sharing political institutions, almost like becoming one state.

Making political decisions based on what works in practice rather than rigid ideology.

A past decision that is used as a guide for future similar situations - especially important in common law.

Acts of Parliament - laws that have gone through the full Parliamentary process in both Houses.

Selling off government-owned industries to private companies. A key Thatcher policy from the 1980s.

An electoral system where parties get seats roughly in proportion to votes. The UK does not use PR for general elections.

EU voting where decisions need a large majority of countries - stopping single countries blocking everything.

The UK's system after devolution - resembles a federal state in some ways but Parliament still has ultimate authority.

The regular sessions where MPs question ministers. PMQs every Wednesday is the most famous.

The theory that voters rationally choose the party that will benefit them most personally.

A way for voters to remove an MP between elections. First used in 2019 against Fiona Onasanya.

Using taxes and benefits to transfer money from richer to poorer people in society.

A direct public vote on a specific question. In the UK, Parliament can technically ignore the result but rarely does.

The stage after committee where the full House considers changes and can add more amendments.

Scotland and Wales can legislate on anything not specifically reserved by Westminster.

The idea that government must answer to Parliament and can be removed if it loses its confidence.

The King's formal approval that turns a passed bill into law. Always given - it has not been refused since 1708.

A Parliament that just approves what the government puts forward without real scrutiny.

The main debate on what a bill is trying to achieve - the first vote where a bill can actually be defeated.

Voting privately so no one knows how you voted. Introduced in the UK in 1872.

A trading area with free movement of goods, services, money and workers. The EU single market is the biggest.

A collective campaign for social or political change organised outside political parties.

Selecting politicians or jury-like panels by random lot rather than election. Used in ancient Athens.

Connecting different topics in your answers - for example linking how Parliament works to questions about democracy.

Voting for your second choice to stop your least favourite party winning. Common under FPTP.

Thatcher's political project: free markets, privatisation, curbing unions, and traditional Conservative values.

The legal concept of state authority that sits with the monarchy - ministers act 'in the name of the Crown'.

Voting how the party tells you even if you personally disagree - or risking losing the whip.

The percentage of eligible voters who actually vote. Low turnout in the UK has raised democratic concerns.

When people vote for a candidate who seems to be losing, out of sympathy.

An immediate question forcing a minister into Parliament that day to explain a breaking issue.

Voting for the party you think is most competent and trustworthy, rather than for a specific policy.

A parliamentary vote testing whether the government still has MPs' support. Loss may bring down the government.

A formal vote saying Parliament no longer supports the government - can bring it down.

The 2023 UK requirement to show photo ID before voting. Critics say it stops disadvantaged groups voting.

The principle that every vote should count equally. Critics say FPTP violates this principle.

A survey asking how people would vote today. Used to track party support between elections.

Under FPTP, a vote for a losing candidate counts for nothing. Critics say millions of votes are wasted each election.

Why should Scottish MPs vote on English laws when English MPs can't vote on Scottish devolved matters?

Transferring the running of policies to a regional body without giving it the power to change laws.

Different parts of the UK having different levels of devolved power - Scotland has more powers than Wales.

A party that includes people with quite different views, from left to right within its own ranks.

A detailed, systematic review of how well a country's democratic system is actually working.

Bagehot's term for the ceremonial parts of the constitution that inspire respect but have no real power.

Bagehot's term for the parts of the constitution that actually run the country.

Deep economic integration with a single market and shared economic policies - going beyond just a customs union.

Being so poor that you cannot meet your most basic survival needs like food, clean water and shelter.

The idea that being a good citizen means getting involved in your community and democracy, not just voting every few years.

A short daily debate in the Commons that allows individual MPs to raise a specific issue with a minister before the House closes for the day.

A Marxist idea that workers under capitalism feel disconnected from their work, their products and each other because they are treated as a means of making profit rather than as human beings.

When two or more parties agree to work together during an election, for example by not competing in the same seats to avoid splitting the vote.

The idea that globalisation is effectively spreading American culture, capitalism and values worldwide, making the world look more like America.

When an independent referee is brought in to settle a dispute between workers and employers, often to avoid a strike.

When two or more countries each keep building up their weapons because they fear the other side is doing the same, creating a spiral of military build-up.

A state ruled by a leader or small group that holds power by force or fear rather than democratic consent, and that restricts opposition and personal freedoms.

A system where one person has total power and faces no checks on what they can do.

A situation in world politics where no single country is powerful enough to dominate all others, either naturally or because other countries join together to stop it.

When a group of countries share the same rules and institutions for overseeing their banks, so that a banking crisis in one country does not spread to the rest.

An approach to development that focuses on making sure everyone has their most essential needs met before worrying about broader economic growth.

A selfish economic policy where one country boosts its own economy at the expense of its trading partners, for example by making its currency weaker to undercut their exports.

When the most powerful country in the world uses its dominance in ways that benefit others as well as itself, for example by keeping trade routes open and providing security.

A one-to-one meeting between the Prime Minister and a minister to discuss that minister's department, often used instead of full Cabinet discussions.

The ruling class in a capitalist society who own the businesses, factories and land, and who profit from the work done by ordinary workers.

An international financial system set up after World War Two that pegged currencies to the US dollar and created the IMF and World Bank. It collapsed in 1971 but shaped the modern global economy.

The government's annual financial plan, presented to Parliament, which sets out how much it will raise in taxes and how much it will spend.

The permanent staff who run government departments and carry out the day-to-day work of the state, regardless of which party is in power.

The organised push by a party or candidate to win votes in an election, involving leaflets, adverts, social media, speeches and door-knocking.

A state whose structures and rules broadly serve the interests of the wealthy and businesses, even if not by conscious design.

The maximum number of people or organisms the Earth can support without permanently damaging the natural systems that life depends on.

A term for modern global finance where banks and investors gamble with huge sums on speculation rather than investing in real economic activity, creating dangerous instability.

Kant's moral rule that you should only act in a way you would be happy for everyone in the world to act. If it would be wrong for everyone to do it, it is wrong for you to do it too.

When famous people from outside politics, such as actors or musicians, use their fame to promote political causes or candidates.

A tradition that links Christian faith with socialist values, arguing that caring for the poor and promoting equality reflects genuine Christian teaching.

The responsibilities citizens have towards their society and democracy, such as voting, obeying the law and contributing to the community.

The network of voluntary groups and organisations outside government, such as charities, religious bodies and pressure groups, that help hold society together and give citizens a voice.

When voting and political loyalties are shaped mainly by social class, with workers supporting left-wing parties and the better-off supporting right-wing parties.

The original form of liberalism that values freedom from government interference above all, favouring a minimal state, free markets and individual rights.

A voting system where you vote for a party, not a person, and the party decides which of its candidates gets elected in what order.

The ability to make people do what you want through force, threats or punishment rather than through agreement or persuasion.

When people work together to achieve something they could not achieve on their own, though this is complicated by the temptation to let others do the work while sharing the reward.

The view that people are naturally social beings and that working together and sharing resources is better than each person looking after only themselves.

The idea in climate diplomacy that all countries must help protect the environment, but richer countries that caused most of the damage must do more and help poorer countries to act.

The idea that all human beings share the same basic nature and dignity, regardless of where they come from, forming the foundation for human rights.

The economic argument that countries should focus on producing what they are relatively best at and trade for everything else, rather than trying to produce everything themselves.

A state that shapes its policies primarily to attract international investment and businesses rather than to protect its citizens from market forces.

A law that forces all eligible citizens to vote in elections, with fines or other penalties for those who do not.

The most fundamental rules of a political system that set out how the state is organised and what it can do, which are distinct from ordinary laws.

A legal power that allowed the government to restrict the movements and activities of suspected terrorists without putting them on trial.

An unwritten rule of how government is supposed to work that is followed by convention and political expectation rather than by law.

A movement that promotes businesses owned and run by their workers or members, sharing profits among themselves rather than paying them to outside investors.

In world-systems theory, the rich, powerful countries at the centre of the global economy that benefit most from global trade and extract wealth from poorer countries.

A business organisation that exists as a legal entity in its own right, owned by shareholders who are not personally liable for its debts. Large corporations can wield significant political influence.

The idea of making all EU countries charge similar rates of corporation tax, to stop multinationals moving their profits to whichever country charges the least.

The EU body where government ministers from each member country meet to make laws and decisions. Different ministers attend depending on the topic being discussed.

Laws and security powers designed to detect, prevent and respond to terrorism, such as surveillance, powers of arrest and listing banned organisations.

When banks suddenly stop lending money, causing businesses and individuals to struggle for credit and the economy to slow sharply.

When powerful countries spread their culture, values and way of life to weaker countries, often crowding out local traditions and identities.

The ability to influence what people think and value through culture, media, language and ideas rather than through force or money.

When a government or group actually controls a territory in practice, even if they are not officially recognised as the legal authority.

When a government or authority is officially and legally recognised as the rightful ruler of a territory, even if it does not always have full control in practice.

Someone who votes for a party out of habit, loyalty to social superiors or tradition rather than thinking carefully about policies.

The theory that democracies do not go to war with each other, because they share values, have leaders accountable to voters and benefit from trade with one another.

A state where the government is chosen by the people through free elections and is held accountable to them.

The New Right argument that too much welfare spending makes people dependent on benefits and stops them from taking responsibility for themselves.

A period or policy of reducing hostility between rival countries, especially the US and USSR in the 1970s, through diplomacy, arms deals and greater contact.

The range of competing explanations for why some countries are wealthy and others are poor, and what should be done to help poorer countries develop.

A mathematical formula used in PR systems to divide up seats between parties fairly according to how many votes each one received.

The legal protection that means foreign diplomats cannot be arrested or taken to court in the country they are posted to.

Voting by simply numbering candidates from top to bottom on the ballot paper without thinking about them, giving an unfair advantage to whoever is listed first.

The EU rule that says a decision needs to be supported by more than half of member states AND those states must represent at least 65 per cent of the EU's population.

The criticism that Western countries hold other countries to standards they do not apply to themselves, for example criticising human rights abuses in rival states while ignoring similar abuses by allies.

An early version of a new law published for public feedback and parliamentary review before it officially goes through Parliament.

The minimum number of first-preference votes a candidate needs to be elected in the STV system.

A landmark 1992 UN conference in Rio de Janeiro that put sustainable development on the international agenda and led to major environmental agreements including the first global climate treaty.

The belief that economies work best when left largely free from government intervention, with markets setting prices and allocating resources.

Economic policies that put the national economy first by protecting home industries from foreign competition, even at the cost of free trade.

The ability to influence other countries or actors through economic means such as trade, investment, financial aid or economic sanctions.

When neighbouring countries create special economic arrangements with each other, such as shared trade rules or a common market, as an alternative to global free trade.

Economic penalties imposed by countries on another country to punish or pressure it, such as banning trade or freezing assets.

The theory that people vote mainly based on how well the economy is doing, backing the government when times are good and throwing it out when they are not.

The advantage a business gets from producing more: the bigger you are, the cheaper each individual unit becomes to make.

Using the internet and digital technology to make it easier for people to take part in democracy, for example through online petitions, digital voting or virtual consultation.

The indirect system used to elect the US President, where voters in each state choose electors who then formally elect the President.

The independent body that oversees elections in the UK, registers parties, monitors campaign spending and ensures elections are fair.

The major intellectual movement of the 1600s and 1700s that said reason and science, not tradition or religion, should guide how society is organised. It laid the foundations for modern liberal democracy.

The system of rules, institutions and agreements at all levels that manage how the environment is protected, including international treaties and national agencies.

The idea that a country's foreign policy should be guided by moral values like human rights rather than purely by self-interest. In the UK, this was famously promised by Robin Cook in 1997.

The organised and often violent removal of a particular ethnic or religious group from an area to make it ethnically uniform.

The shared currency used by most EU countries, replacing national currencies. It is managed by the European Central Bank and used for trade and finance across the Eurozone.

The process by which EU membership changes how member countries govern themselves, make policy and think about their national identity.

The A-Level exam skill of weighing up arguments, considering counterarguments and reaching a reasoned conclusion, assessed in AO3.

An EU system that kept member countries' currencies within set limits of each other's value. The UK joined in 1990 but was forced out on Black Wednesday in September 1992.

A British tradition of democratic socialism that believed in achieving socialist goals gradually through parliamentary reform and policy change rather than revolution.

An organised group within a political party that shares a particular set of views and campaigns for them within the party, sometimes in opposition to the leadership.

The positive feeling that makes people more likely to support the government when they feel financially secure and the economy seems to be doing well.

A sudden collapse of financial markets or banking systems that spreads into the wider economy, causing recession and job losses, as happened in 2007-09.

How the government uses its spending and tax decisions to manage the economy, for example by spending more to boost growth in a recession.

When a country fixes the value of its currency against another currency or gold and keeps it there, providing predictability for trade but requiring intervention to maintain the rate.

A constitution that can be changed using the same process as ordinary laws, without needing special majorities or procedures.

When the value of a currency is left to rise and fall according to market forces rather than being fixed by the government.

When one country uses military force to intervene in another country without its government's permission, often justified on grounds of protecting civilians.

An economy where prices and production are set by buyers and sellers without government control, allowing competition to allocate resources.

Trade between countries that takes place without government-imposed barriers like tariffs or quotas, letting markets determine what is bought and sold across borders.

The right to express your views, opinions and ideas freely without the government stopping or punishing you for doing so.

The right of citizens to request and receive information held by the government and public bodies, making government more transparent and accountable.

The right to travel and live in different places freely, particularly in the EU where citizens can live and work in any member country.

The right to say what you think without being silenced or punished by the state.

The theory that European integration happens step by step: when countries co-operate on practical things like trade, this creates pressure to co-operate in more areas until deeper political union becomes attractive.

The deliberate mass killing or destruction of a particular national, ethnic or religious group.

Mikhail Gorbachev's policy in 1980s Soviet Russia of allowing greater openness and freedom of discussion, loosening censorship and enabling debate about Soviet history and politics.

Any player in world politics: this includes not just countries but also international organisations, multinational companies, charities and other groups that shape global events.

The worldwide banking and economic crisis of 2007-09, triggered by the collapse of risky US mortgage lending, which caused severe recessions and required massive government bailouts of banks.

The belief that change should happen slowly, step by step through reform of existing institutions, rather than through sudden revolution.

A committee of only English MPs (or English and Welsh MPs) that was used from 2015 to 2021 to scrutinise laws affecting only England, as part of English Votes for English Laws.

A political movement that puts environmental protection and sustainability at the heart of politics, often also promoting social justice and decentralised democratic decision-making.

A parliamentary procedure that cuts short debate on a bill by imposing a strict timetable, stopping MPs from talking it out indefinitely.

Countries identified by the IMF and World Bank as too poor to repay their debts, making them eligible for debt cancellation and special financial help.

The dominance of one power over others, either in world politics or within a society, where the powerful maintain their position through a combination of force and cultural influence that makes their rule seem normal.

A clause in a law that gives ministers the power to change other laws without going through the full parliamentary process, which critics say undermines Parliament.

The most important political issues for a state, especially war, peace, security and foreign policy, which governments treat as too sensitive to leave to ordinary debate.

Beliefs about what people are fundamentally like by nature, which shape political ideologies: whether people are naturally good or bad, selfish or co-operative, rational or irrational.

A bill that changes general law but also directly affects specific organisations or individuals, requiring a special procedure in Parliament.

A form of conflict that combines traditional military action with cyberattacks, fake news, economic pressure and using other groups to fight on your behalf.

Someone who sees globalisation as an unstoppable force that is making nation states increasingly irrelevant as the world becomes one interconnected economy and society.

A country so dominant in every dimension of power that it goes beyond being a superpower, as the USA was seen to be after the Cold War ended.

Rights that belong to every person by nature and cannot be taken away by any government or authority, such as life, liberty and property.

The belief that individuals, not groups or society, are the most important unit in politics, and that personal freedom and individual rights should come first.

When employers and workers bring in an independent person to settle a dispute for them rather than going on strike or going to court.

The argument that new industries in developing countries should be protected from foreign competition until they are strong enough to compete on their own.

The state of being linked together across borders so that what happens in one country quickly affects others through trade, finance, communication and shared problems.

When countries or groups depend on each other, creating both benefits from co-operation and risks if relations break down.

An international body whose members are governments of countries, such as the UN or NATO, set up by treaty to allow states to work together.

A mini-conclusion within an essay paragraph that gives your judgement on the point you have just made before moving on.

Rules of international law that have developed not from treaties but from the long-standing practice of states who follow them out of a sense of legal duty.

The different theories used to explain how countries behave towards each other and why world events happen, including realism, liberalism and Marxism.

The practice of one country getting involved in the affairs of another, whether through military action, economic pressure or political support.

Adam Smith's idea that when individuals act selfishly in a free market, the economy as a whole benefits as if guided by an invisible hand, without anyone needing to plan it.

An Islamic concept with multiple meanings: at its most basic it means personal spiritual effort, but it can also refer to defence of the faith. The word is often misused in political discourse to mean holy war.

A matter that a court can properly decide on. Some political decisions are not judiciable because they involve political rather than legal judgement.

The set of rules in just war theory that say when it is morally acceptable to start a war.

The rules of just war theory about how a war must be fought once it has started, including protecting civilians and not using disproportionate force.

The relatively new branch of just war theory about what obligations apply after a war is over, including rebuilding the country and achieving a just peace.

A moral framework that sets out when going to war is justified and how wars must be fought, dating back to ancient and medieval thinkers.

The three things Kant and liberal IR theory say promote peace among states: democracy, free trade, and membership of international organisations.

An economy that depends on ideas, skills, education and technology rather than manufacturing or natural resources to generate wealth.

The difference between international law, which governs relations between countries but is difficult to enforce, and national law, which is made and enforced by governments within their own country.

The idea that the law applies equally to everyone, regardless of who they are or how rich or powerful they are.

The job of a parliament or congress of debating, amending and passing laws.

The marking system used in A-Level Politics exams, where answers are placed in one of four levels based on how well they analyse and evaluate, not just how many facts they include.

A system of government that combines democratic elections with the protection of individual rights, the rule of law and limits on what even a democratically elected government can do.

A political belief that individual freedom is the most important value and that governments should interfere as little as possible in both economic life and personal choices.

Political issues concerned with economic and social matters such as trade, welfare and the environment, as opposed to high politics issues like war and security.

The democratic principle that decisions should be taken by whichever option gets more than half the votes, though this must be balanced against protecting the rights of minorities.

An economy where the government takes an active role in directing economic activity rather than leaving everything to the market.

An economy where markets, not governments, determine what is produced, how it is produced and who gets it, with prices guiding these decisions.

Financial rewards and punishments used to encourage people to work and take economic risks, such as wages and profits. Socialists often argue these should be replaced by collective motivation.

The way news media present information to shape how audiences think about an issue, including which aspects they highlight, which they ignore and what moral conclusions they encourage.

Very small loans given to poor people in developing countries to help them start small businesses, made famous by Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank.

A tiny self-proclaimed country that claims to be independent but is not recognised by other states or international bodies.

The idea, associated with Harold Macmillan, that Conservatives should find a middle path between pure capitalism and socialism, supporting a mixed economy and welfare state.

A country's ability to use its armed forces to protect itself and achieve its goals in world politics.

The economic theory that inflation is caused by having too much money in circulation, and that governments should control the money supply rather than using spending to manage the economy.

A situation where one culture or set of values dominates and diversity disappears, often used to criticise the spread of American or Western culture worldwide.

Max Weber's famous idea that what makes a state a state is its exclusive right to use force within its territory - only the state can legitimately use violence.

When someone takes greater risks because they know someone else will pay the price if things go wrong, such as banks taking gambles knowing the government will rescue them.

A system where power is shared across several levels of government at the same time: local, national, regional and international bodies all have a role in making decisions.

When multiple countries work together through shared rules and institutions rather than each acting alone or in bilateral deals.

The Cold War nuclear doctrine that both superpowers could survive a nuclear attack and retaliate, so neither would dare strike first because both sides would be destroyed.

What a government sees as most important for its country: usually security, prosperity and the wellbeing of its citizens, used to justify foreign policy choices.

The idea that each nation state has the right to govern itself without interference from other countries.

The idea that there are moral rules that apply to everyone, discoverable through reason, that stand above any human-made law and can be used to judge whether laws are just.

Rights that people have simply because they are human beings, before and above any government, such as life, liberty and property.

The economic approach to development that says poor countries need free markets, less government and open trade to grow, associated with the Washington Consensus policies pushed by the IMF and World Bank.

The continuation of colonial-style economic and political control over poorer countries through trade, debt and financial power rather than direct occupation.

A US political movement that combines traditional conservative social values with an aggressive foreign policy aimed at spreading American democratic values worldwide, most associated with the Iraq War.

The theory that European integration builds on itself: once countries co-operate in one area, this creates pressure to integrate in other areas too, pushing integration further than governments originally intended.

The revival of free-market economics from the 1970s onwards, promoting privatisation, deregulation, free trade and cutting the state, associated with Thatcher and Reagan.

Updated versions of Marxist theory that keep core ideas about class and capitalism but apply them to modern issues like culture, race and gender that Marx did not fully address.

A theory of international relations that says states behave competitively not because of their internal politics but because the world has no central authority, forcing states to look after themselves.

A 1960s political movement that combined socialism with concerns about civil rights, feminism, the environment and participatory democracy, going beyond the traditional labour movement.

The libertarian and anarchist principle that using force against others is only ever justified in self-defence, and that initiating force against others is always wrong.

A state where the government does not hold free and fair elections and power is not genuinely accountable to the people.

The idea that a country's nuclear weapons deter others from attacking it because the potential enemy knows any attack would invite a devastating nuclear response.

Ayn Rand's philosophy that celebrates individual reason and rational self-interest, arguing that pursuing your own happiness is morally right and that capitalism is the only truly moral economic system.

A political system where one party wins election after election over many years, even though other parties exist and compete.

An extra seat that occurs in AMS when a party wins more constituency seats than its proportional share of the vote would entitle it to.

Mikhail Gorbachev's policy in the 1980s of restructuring and reforming the Soviet economy to make it more efficient, which contributed to the eventual collapse of the USSR.

In world-systems theory, the poorer countries at the edge of the global economy that supply raw materials and cheap labour to rich countries, gaining little in return.

A tolerant attitude that allows a wide range of individual behaviours, particularly in sexual and social morality. Associated with the 1960s liberalisation of social laws.

A group that focuses its lobbying efforts on influencing government policy in a particular area, usually working directly with government rather than campaigning publicly.

When people are not interested in politics and do not vote or engage with democratic processes, often because they feel it makes no difference.

Using your choices as a consumer, such as boycotting companies, as a form of political action to express your values or pressure businesses and governments.

The small group of people who hold the most political power and influence, including politicians, senior officials and wealthy business figures.

The idea that every citizen's political voice and vote should count equally, regardless of wealth or background.

When countries voluntarily give up some of their independent authority to a shared institution, like the EU, so that some decisions are made jointly rather than by each country alone.

The idea that the people are the ultimate source of political power and that government authority comes from and depends on the consent of those governed.

A political approach that claims to speak for ordinary people against a corrupt or out-of-touch elite, often critical of experts and institutions.

A state that has given up significant amounts of its sovereignty to supranational bodies like the EU, so that it no longer has complete control over its own laws and policies.

The condition of not having enough money or resources to meet basic needs or to live a normal life in a given society.

A policy document that poor countries must produce to get debt relief or cheap loans from the IMF or World Bank, setting out their plans for reducing poverty.

When the most powerful country uses its dominance to exploit and extract value from weaker countries for its own benefit rather than providing leadership.

The weekly session in the Commons where the Prime Minister answers questions from MPs, especially the Leader of the Opposition. Held every Wednesday for about 30 minutes.

Laws that protect people's personal information and private lives from being disclosed without their consent.

A bill promoted by a specific organisation such as a company or local authority to give that body particular powers, rather than changing the law for everyone.

Favouring political change that expands rights, reduces inequality and improves the lives of those worse off in society.

A parliamentary motion that sets the timetable for how long each stage of a bill's passage through Parliament will take.

In Marxist theory, the working class who own no property and must work for wages, exploited by the capitalist class who own the means of production.

Economic policies that protect home industries from foreign competition by imposing taxes on imports, limiting the amount that can be imported or subsidising domestic producers.

The decisions and actions government takes to deal with problems and achieve goals for society.

Reductions in the amount the government spends on public services, benefits and other programmes, often as part of an austerity policy.

Favouring fundamental, root-and-branch change to the existing political or economic system rather than gradual reform.

The belief that human reason is the best guide to knowledge and action, and that we can use rational thought to understand and improve the world.

The belief that change should be achieved by improving existing systems through reform rather than tearing them down through revolution.

Favouring a return to old ways of doing things or having the effect of making things worse for those who are already worst off.

The ability of one actor to make another do something it would not otherwise do through their direct relationship.

The process by which some people act on behalf of others in political decision-making, such as MPs representing their constituents.

The international principle that if a government fails to protect its people from atrocities, the international community has a responsibility to step in and protect them.

The socialist belief that capitalism can only be ended through revolution rather than gradual reform, associated with Marxist-Leninist traditions.

A constitution that is difficult to change because amendments require a special process, such as a large parliamentary majority or a referendum.

Someone who argues that globalisation is not as new or as powerful as hyperglobalists claim, pointing out that international integration existed before and that states still control many outcomes.

When neighbouring countries form regional agreements to manage security threats together, keep the peace and co-ordinate their responses to conflicts.

The right of a people or nation to decide for themselves how they are governed, including seeking independence from another country.

The libertarian idea that each person owns themselves and therefore has the right to do what they choose with their own body and life without interference.

A state that holds elections and has some democratic features but also limits opposition, restricts the press or manipulates results, making it only partly democratic.

In world-systems theory, the countries in between the richest and poorest: they are exploited by the rich core but also exploit the poorest peripheral countries.

An environmental approach that tries to tackle ecological problems through technology, regulation and better markets without challenging the underlying economic system or growth model.

Corrupt or unethical behaviour by politicians, such as taking bribes, misusing expenses or having undisclosed conflicts of interest, that damages public trust in politics.

A foreign policy approach that combines military and economic pressure with diplomacy, aid and cultural engagement to achieve goals more effectively.

The misapplication of Darwin's ideas about nature to human society, used to justify inequality and imperialism by claiming that the powerful are simply the naturally fittest.

The aim of ensuring everyone in society can participate fully and no one is excluded by poverty, discrimination or disadvantage.

A model of the welfare state that invests in people's skills and education rather than just giving them benefits, aimed at enabling people to support themselves through work.

The form of liberalism that accepts an active role for the state in helping individuals to be truly free by removing poverty and providing education and healthcare.

The obligation on individuals, businesses and governments to consider the impact of their actions on others and on society as a whole.

The idea that the state can only intervene in personal choices when those choices are not truly free or informed, but must respect genuinely voluntary decisions even if harmful to oneself.

A short, catchy phrase designed for TV and radio that politicians use to get their message across quickly, often criticised for oversimplifying complex issues.

An exam question that asks you to analyse and use a piece of evidence provided, such as a text extract, graph or image.

A leadership style where the leader positions themselves above party politics and claims to speak for the whole nation, not just one side.

A game theory scenario used in international relations to show why states find it hard to co-operate: acting alone gives a guaranteed small result, but co-operation could give a much bigger result if everyone trusts each other.

A situation where inflation and unemployment are both high at the same time, which the Keynesian model could not explain and which helped shift economic thinking towards monetarism in the 1970s.

A type of law made by ministers using powers given to them by Parliament in an Act, allowing laws to be updated without a full parliamentary process.

Agreements between the US and USSR during the Cold War to limit the number of nuclear weapons each side could hold, as part of the broader policy of detente.

Inequality that is built into how society is organised, not just a result of individual bad luck or choices, creating systematic disadvantage for some groups.

The ability to set the rules and framework within which others must operate, rather than just winning individual conflicts. Associated with Susan Strange's analysis of American power.

The argument that poor countries are poor not because of their own failings but because the global economic system is structured in ways that keep them poor and rich countries rich.

A high-risk mortgage given to people unlikely to be able to repay it. The collapse of the US sub-prime mortgage market in 2007 triggered the global financial crisis.

A provision in a law that causes it to automatically expire on a set date unless Parliament actively renews it, used to keep emergency laws in check.

The parliamentary process of approving government spending, through which the Commons grants the government authority to use public funds.

An economic approach that tries to boost growth by cutting taxes and regulations on businesses and reducing workers' bargaining power, associated with Thatcher and Reagan.

The IMF's role of monitoring member countries' economies, regularly reviewing their economic policies and warning about risks.

The measure of how much voter support has shifted between two parties from one election to the next.

A voter with no firm party loyalty who may vote differently from one election to the next, and whose support is therefore particularly sought by parties during campaigns.

A tax on imported goods that makes them more expensive and less competitive, used to protect home industries from foreign competition.

When decisions are made by unelected experts on technical grounds rather than by politicians accountable to voters.

The deliberate use of violence against civilians to create fear and force political change, typically by non-state groups though the term is contested.

The traditional way MPs refer to the House of Lords in parliamentary debate rather than naming it directly.

The strongest type of party order to MPs: they must attend and vote as instructed. Defying a three-line whip can mean losing the party whip.

An extreme form of dictatorship that seeks total control over every aspect of life, public and private, leaving no space for individual freedom or civil society.

A formal deal between countries setting out the terms of their trade relations, typically reducing barriers and establishing shared rules.

A group of countries that trade with each other on preferential terms, reducing barriers between themselves while maintaining different rules for the rest of the world.

An organisation of workers that negotiates with employers over pay and working conditions on behalf of its members, and can call strikes when negotiations fail.

In conservative thinking, the inherited customs and institutions of society, which should be respected and maintained because they carry the wisdom of past generations.

A view of globalisation that says it genuinely transforms the world and how states work, but does not necessarily end the nation state or produce a single predetermined outcome.

A large company that operates in many countries, often with revenues and influence that rival those of smaller nations.

A party system where two major parties dominate but a significant third party exists, winning enough seats to matter, as described the Lib Dems' role in UK politics.

The danger that in a democracy the majority uses its power to impose its will on minorities and ignore their rights, used to justify constitutional protections for minority groups.

A US Senate procedure where the whole chamber can agree to do something quickly as long as no single senator objects.

The ethical theory that the right thing to do is whatever produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

A serious violation of the international rules of warfare, such as deliberately targeting civilians or torturing prisoners, which can be prosecuted in international courts.

The global campaign launched by the US and allies after the 9/11 attacks in 2001, including wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, increased surveillance and international counter-terrorism co-operation.

A system where the government takes responsibility for citizens' basic security, providing healthcare, education, pensions and benefits.

The spread of Western values, culture, institutions and economic practices to the rest of the world, seen by some as enriching and by others as cultural imperialism.

The international order based on sovereign states and the principle of non-interference in each other's affairs, said to originate from the 1648 Peace of Westphalia.

The socialist idea that workers should democratically control their own workplaces rather than being managed on behalf of shareholders.

The overall pattern of power and rules in world politics at any given time, including whether one superpower, two or several great powers dominate.

Immanuel Wallerstein's theory that the global economy divides the world into rich core countries, poor peripheral countries and those in between, with the rich maintaining their position through unequal trade and financial power.

A situation where if one side wins, the other side loses by exactly the same amount, like cutting up a fixed pie. Contrasted with co-operative situations where all sides can gain.

The MP who has been in Parliament the longest without a break. They get the special job of running the vote to choose a new Speaker.

The way parties tell their MPs how to vote. A "three-line whip" means you must vote with the party or face serious consequences.

A bill introduced by the government. It has the most parliamentary time and support, and nearly always becomes law.

A way for the government to stop debate on a bill early, even if not everything has been discussed. Used to keep Parliament moving on government legislation.

The government sets a timetable for how long Parliament can discuss each part of a new law. This limits debate and means some parts of bills are never properly scrutinised.

MPs question ministers face-to-face in Parliament. Each department takes a turn every few weeks. The minister must answer on their feet.

MPs can send questions in writing to ministers, who must write back with an answer. Used to get detailed information, statistics, and policy clarifications.

A committee that gives backbench MPs control over some parliamentary time - about 35 days per year. Before 2010, the government controlled nearly all parliamentary time.

The PAC checks whether the government is spending taxpayers' money properly. It works with the National Audit Office and is usually chaired by an opposition MP.

A committee that investigates when MPs are accused of lying to Parliament or abusing their position. It found Boris Johnson had repeatedly misled Parliament in 2023.

The 26 Church of England bishops who automatically get seats in the House of Lords. They sit independently and often speak on moral issues like welfare, poverty, and human rights.

When Parliament is ended and a general election is called. Until 2022 this required Parliament's agreement; now the PM can advise the King to call an election at any time.

When Parliament looks at a proposed law in draft form, before the government officially introduces it. Can improve laws before they are formally debated.

The second house of Parliament - in the UK this is the House of Lords. It reviews and can amend laws, but in the UK it is unelected.

Society is like a living body: every part depends on every other part. You cannot just remove or change one element without affecting everything else.

The oldest form of conservatism: value what has been passed down to us, change things slowly and carefully, and be suspicious of grand political theories.

One Nation conservatism says the rich must help the poor - not out of equality, but because a divided society is unstable. Limited welfare and reform are acceptable to keep the country together.

The Third Way tries to find a middle path between old-style socialism and Thatcherite free markets. It accepts capitalism but wants the government to invest in people through education and social programmes.

Social democracy accepts capitalism but tries to make it fairer through high taxes on the rich, good public services, and protection for workers. It aims to fix capitalism rather than replace it.

Anarchy literally means 'without rulers'. Anarchists say this would not cause chaos - people would naturally co-operate if not controlled by states or employers.

Collectivist anarchists want to get rid of both the government and big business. Instead of private ownership, workers should control things together through voluntary groups.

Individualist anarchists say the most important thing is personal freedom. No government, group, or tradition should have any power over what you do with your own life.

Anarcho-communists want a world with no government and no private ownership. Everyone contributes what they can and takes what they need, organised through voluntary communes.

Anarcho-syndicalists believe workers should organise in trade unions and use strikes to bring down both the government and capitalism. Unions then run industry directly.

Anarcho-capitalists want no government at all. They believe private companies competing in a free market could provide everything governments currently do - without any coercion.

Stirner argued that the self is all that really matters. Concepts like 'duty', 'God', 'society', and 'the nation' are just ideas used to control you. True freedom means doing what you want.

Holism means everything in nature is connected. You cannot understand one part of an ecosystem without understanding how it relates to everything else around it.

Environmental ethics asks: what moral duties do we have to the natural world? Deep greens argue nature has its own rights and value, not just value because it is useful to us.

Post-materialism is the idea that once people have enough material security, they start to care more about quality of life and the environment than about getting richer.

Deep greens believe nature has value in its own right, not just because it is useful to people. They want radical changes to how society is organised, not just environmental regulations.

Social ecology says the environment is being destroyed because of social inequality and hierarchy. To fix the planet, you need to fix society - abolishing exploitation and domination of all kinds.

Eco-socialists say capitalism is destroying the planet. To save the environment you need to replace capitalism with a system that does not depend on endless growth.

Eco-anarchists believe both governments and big business are destroying the environment. The solution is small, self-governing communities that manage their own resources sustainably.

Eco-feminists argue that the same thinking that lets men dominate women also lets humans dominate nature. To protect the environment, you also need to challenge sexism and gender inequality.

Greenwash is when companies or governments pretend to be green when really they are not making the serious changes needed. It is environmental PR rather than genuine action.

Patriarchy means a society where men have more power than women across most areas of life - from who runs the country to who does the housework. Feminism is about challenging this system.

Sex is biological (male/female bodies). Gender is what society makes of those differences - the roles, expectations, and identities placed on people because of their sex. Feminists say gender inequality is made by society, not nature.

The idea that everyday life - relationships, housework, sex - is not just personal but political. These are shaped by wider power structures and can only change if those structures change.

Liberal feminists believe women can achieve equality by changing laws and removing discrimination. They work within the existing system rather than calling for revolution.

Socialist feminists say capitalism and sexism reinforce each other. To free women, you need to challenge the economic system, not just change laws.

Radical feminists believe sexism is the most basic form of oppression and that real change requires transforming all of society, not just passing new laws.

Postmodern feminism says there is no one 'women's experience' - it is different depending on your race, class, sexuality, and other identities. Feminism must reflect this diversity.

Recognition politics says it is not enough just to tolerate minority cultures. Society needs to actively respect and affirm them. Being ignored or looked down on as a culture causes real harm.

Minority rights are extra protections for cultural groups - for example, the right to use your language in schools, or to follow your religious traditions. They go beyond the rights everyone has as individuals.

Liberal multiculturalism says: let different cultures exist and flourish, but within the rules of a liberal society. Cultural practices that harm individuals cannot be protected by group rights.

Pluralist multiculturalism says we should respect cultures even when they do not share liberal values, as long as they are not harmful. All cultures have something valuable to offer.

Cosmopolitan multiculturalism says cultures are not fixed or pure - they change and mix all the time. Identity is something we develop through interaction with other cultures, not something given at birth.

Equal dignity means every culture deserves the same basic respect. No culture should be treated as inferior just because it is different from the mainstream.

A nation is a group of people who share something important - a language, history, or culture - and feel they belong together. Nationalists say this shared identity gives the group the right to govern itself.

Racialism says human beings can be divided into distinct races with fixed, biological differences in ability and worth. Expansionist nationalists use this to justify one group dominating another.

Culturalism says what makes a nation is shared culture - language, customs, traditions - not race or citizenship. Nations are held together by who people are culturally, not biologically.

Liberal nationalists believe in national independence and self-government, but based on shared democratic values rather than race or blood. Different nations can and should respect each other.

Conservative nationalists see the nation as something inherited - defined by shared culture and history, not by what you choose to believe. They want to protect this from outside interference.

Expansionist nationalism is aggressive: it says the nation is superior and has the right to expand and dominate others. This is the form of nationalism most associated with fascism and imperialism.

Anti-colonial nationalism is nationalism as used by oppressed peoples to fight back against their colonisers. It says: we have the right to govern ourselves and to reclaim our culture from those who occupied and dominated us.

Internationalism within nationalism says: nations can be independent AND work together. Free nations co-operate, they do not fight. This is the liberal nationalist vision of world order.

Modern liberals say that just removing rules and restrictions is not enough to make people truly free. If you are poor or uneducated, you cannot really use your freedom. The state should help people to genuinely be free.

The idea that all developing countries should follow the same free-market recipe: cut government spending, sell off state companies, and open up to free trade, as conditions for getting IMF or World Bank loans.

Each country decides for itself what climate targets to set under the Paris Agreement. No international body can force a state to meet them, which is both the systems strength (it got 193 states to sign up) and its weakness (countries can set weak targets).

The view that nature matters in its own right, not just because it is useful to humans. Deep ecologists argue that animals, plants, and ecosystems have rights too, and that the whole way capitalism treats the environment must change.

The idea that humans come first in moral thinking and that nature matters mainly because it is useful to people. Shallow ecologists take this view; deep ecologists reject it.

The claim by some Asian governments that their cultures value the community over the individual, and that Western human rights ideas do not automatically apply to them. Critics say this is an excuse for authoritarianism.

Tony Blair's argument that the world community can and should send military forces into countries committing mass atrocities, because sovereignty is not a right to commit crimes against your own people.

A model showing why two countries might both choose not to cooperate even when cooperation would benefit them both, because neither can be sure the other will keep their side of the deal.

When countries (or people) benefit from something shared without paying their fair share of the cost. Climate action is a classic example: all countries benefit from a stable climate, but each has an incentive to let others bear the economic costs of cutting emissions.

A UN measure that ranks countries not just by wealth (GDP) but also by how long people live and how well-educated they are. It gives a more rounded picture of development than income alone.

The EU rule that Brussels should only do things that individual countries cannot do as well themselves. Decisions should be made at the lowest possible level - local, national, or EU - depending on what works best.

Being poor compared to the average person in your own country, not just surviving on very little money. Someone can be above the absolute poverty line but still relatively poor compared to others around them.

The idea that there are no universal human rights because what counts as a right depends on your culture. Different societies have different values, so Western human rights cannot be imposed on everyone.

The agreement between most European countries that citizens can travel between them without showing a passport. It is one of the most tangible examples of European integration giving up national border control.

The idea that international war crimes courts only punish the losers of conflicts while ignoring crimes committed by the winners, which makes them politically biased rather than genuinely just.

Using resources today in a way that does not prevent future generations from meeting their own needs. Introduced by the 1987 Brundtland Report, it became the standard definition behind all global environmental agreements since Rio 1992.

When voters stop automatically supporting the party they or their parents always voted for. People become less loyal to parties over time.

When a group of voters that used to support one party permanently switches to another. If working-class voters move from Labour to Conservative and stay there, that is realignment.

A political issue where everyone wants the same thing (e.g. a strong economy) and voters just decide which party is most likely to deliver it. Compare with a position issue, where parties disagree about what the right policy is.

A pressure group with an established relationship with government - ministers consult them on policy. They get influence through quiet meetings and formal channels rather than protests.

A pressure group not invited to government consultations. They get their message across through protests, media campaigns, and direct action rather than quiet meetings with ministers.

A pressure group that exists to defend the interests of a particular group of people - like a union protecting workers' pay and conditions, or a farmers' group lobbying for farm subsidies.

A pressure group fighting for a cause that benefits others or society as a whole, not just its own members. Greenpeace campaigns on climate for everyone; Amnesty International fights for human rights globally.

When individuals or organisations try to influence politicians and government officials - often by meeting them, providing information, or employing former ministers to make their case. Professional lobbying firms are hired to do this on behalf of businesses or groups.

How competitive a constituency is. A marginal seat could easily go to either party; a safe seat is comfortably held by one party. Under FPTP, elections are effectively decided by a small number of marginal seats.

A measure of how many voters switched from one party to another between two elections. A 5% swing to Labour means Labour roughly gained 5% and their rival lost 5%.

When no single party wins enough seats to govern on its own. The largest party either forms a minority government or makes a deal with another party to get a majority.

The idea that all countries can win from working together, even if some gain more than others.

The idea that leaders and organisations must answer to the people they affect.

The difference between trying to stop climate change from getting worse (mitigation) and learning to live with its effects (adaptation).

The accusation that international courts unfairly focus on Africa while ignoring wrongdoing by powerful Western countries.

When governments use special rules to protect their farmers from foreign competition.

The belief that people are naturally capable of caring about others, not just themselves.

The idea that the US should put its own interests above international agreements and alliances.

The way American culture, brands and values spread across the world.

The idea that even though there is no world government, states still follow shared rules and form a kind of international community.

The international system where there is no world government but states still behave according to shared norms.

A world where no single government is in charge of all countries, so each state must look after itself.

Groups and parties that want to reduce or end European integration.

Groups that protest against the negative effects of global trade and economic integration.

A group of four fast-growing economies - Brazil, Russia, India and China - seen as the next great powers.

A group of large developing countries with fast-growing economies challenging Western dominance.

The growing resistance to globalisation from people who feel left behind or threatened by it.

The accusation that international organisations apply rules unfairly, favouring some countries over others.

The idea that countries interact with each other like billiard balls - bouncing off each other with no real cooperation.

The EU's attempt to have one shared foreign policy, though disagreements between member states often make this difficult.

The idea that when TV cameras show suffering around the world, governments feel forced to act.

A declaration by Islamic countries stating that human rights must be understood within Islamic law, not as universal standards.

The gases released when we burn oil, coal and gas, which cause global warming.

Natural systems like forests and oceans that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

A system where companies can buy and sell the right to produce carbon emissions, aiming to reduce pollution overall.

When children are made to work in harmful conditions, often to produce goods for global companies.

Legal disputes between people or organisations, as opposed to criminal cases brought by governments.

A war fought between different groups inside the same country.

The theory that future wars will mainly be between different cultural groups like the West and the Islamic world.

The idea that the world is like a spider's web, with countries and organisations all connected to each other.

The idea that if one member of an alliance is attacked, all other members will defend it.

A system where countries agree to jointly oppose any aggressor, so war becomes less likely.

A Soviet-led organisation that tried to spread communism around the world.

The EU's attempt to speak with one voice in foreign affairs, though member states often disagree.

The idea that all countries must tackle climate change, but richer countries that caused more pollution must do more.

Shared values and ways of life that are spreading around the world through globalisation.

The shared goals and beliefs that help countries work together internationally.

When countries agree on what they want to achieve and work together towards it.

Widely shared principles like human rights and democracy that countries use as a basis for international rules.

Money lent to countries on the condition they follow strict economic rules, usually set by Western-led institutions.

Chinese government-funded centres at universities around the world that promote Chinese culture and language.

A major international meeting after the Napoleonic Wars that tried to create a stable and peaceful Europe.

When all countries in an organisation must agree before a decision can be made.

The big problems facing the world today that cross borders and require countries to work together.

When countries work together to achieve goals they could not achieve alone.

The division of the world into rich powerful countries at the centre and poor countries on the edges who are exploited by the centre.

Whether other countries believe you will actually do what you say you will do.

Cases where individuals are prosecuted for serious crimes under international law.

Cultural products like films and music that are sold and consumed around the world.

The cultural background that shapes how people understand rights and values.

The way cultures develop and spread as the world becomes more connected.

The way globalisation makes different cultures around the world look more and more the same.

Famous symbols or products that represent a culture around the world, like McDonald's or Hollywood films.

The power countries have to change how people in other countries think and behave through culture.

The theory that rich countries keep poor countries poor by controlling the global economic system.

When governments remove rules controlling businesses and markets, usually to encourage investment.

The way the threat of punishment stops people or countries from doing bad things.

How effective a threat of punishment is at actually preventing harmful behaviour.

When powerful countries apply rules to others that they do not apply to themselves.

The belief that nature has value in its own right, not just because it is useful to humans.

Periods of severe economic collapse that spread across borders because economies are so interconnected.

When organisations or governments concentrate mainly on economic goals rather than wider social or environmental ones.

The organisations and rules that manage the global economy, such as the IMF and WTO.

The gap in wealth between rich and poor countries, and between rich and poor people within countries.

When countries remove barriers between their economies to allow free trade and movement.

Using economic power, like trade or sanctions, to make other countries do what you want.

When nearby countries form trading groups to lower trade barriers between themselves.

Economic penalties imposed on a country, like banning trade or freezing assets, to change its behaviour.

Regions where countries have agreed to trade with each other on better terms.

A country that is growing rapidly in economic and political power and starting to influence world affairs.

Fukuyama's claim that liberal democracy had won the battle of ideas and would spread everywhere after the Cold War.

When countries use their control of energy supplies like gas and oil to pressure other countries.

A theory that sees the world as a community of states sharing some rules and norms, even without a world government.

The idea that we should protect the environment mainly because it is good for humans in the long run.

How much political focus is given to environmental issues by governments and international organisations.

When countries work together to tackle shared environmental problems like climate change.

The harm done to nature by human activities like pollution and deforestation.

Major international meetings where countries negotiate agreements to tackle environmental problems.

Opposition or distrust towards the European Union and the idea of European integration.

When an international organisation limits who can join, often favouring wealthy or powerful countries.

A strategy where countries grow their economies by producing and selling goods to other countries.

The most severe form of poverty, where people cannot afford basic needs like food and shelter.

A country whose government has collapsed and can no longer provide basic services or maintain order.

A situation where banks and financial systems around the world are working properly and not in crisis.

When money from one country is invested in businesses or assets in another country.

The type of government a country has, such as democracy or dictatorship.

A group of countries that trade with each other without tariffs or other barriers.

The spread of the free market economic system across the entire world.

The movement of goods, money, people and ideas around the world that defines globalisation.

The way the world tries to manage shared problems through international organisations and agreements, without having a single world government.

A country that dominates the entire world through its military, economic and cultural power.

How the world's most powerful country chooses to use its power in international affairs.

When outside countries or organisations get involved in the affairs of another country.

A country's ability to use its military or political power in faraway parts of the world.

The buying and selling of goods and services between countries across the world.

People who argue that globalisation is not as powerful or inevitable as its supporters claim.

The 1990s period when the international community intervened in several crises, suggesting a new willingness to protect civilians.

A country with enough military and economic power to influence world events significantly.

The idea that capitalism can be reformed to protect the environment using market-based tools.

Economic growth that does not damage the environment, achieved through clean technology and sustainable practices.

The idea that wealthy countries that caused most of the climate problem should do more to fix it.

When globalisation makes different cultures or economies look increasingly the same.

Rights that belong to every person in the world, regardless of where they live or who they are.

The growing global knowledge and recognition of people's basic rights.

UN bodies that check whether countries are following human rights agreements.

The international system of organisations and treaties that tries to protect people's rights around the world.

Agreed international standards about how governments should treat people.

When outside countries use military force to stop a government harming its own people.

People who believe globalisation is so powerful it will eventually make national borders irrelevant.

The importance of political beliefs and ideologies in shaping how countries behave.

When an action breaks international law, even if some argue it is morally justified.

Rights that nobody can ever take away from you, no matter what.

The process of an economy shifting from farming to factory-based manufacturing, which drives economic growth.

The idea that international organisations and rules can help countries work together even when they are self-interested.

When countries rely on each other so much that damaging one harms the others too.

International organisations that give advice to governments but cannot force them to act.

International organisations run by governments, where countries keep their own power and must agree to all decisions.

When countries cooperate internationally but keep control over their own decisions, rather than giving power to a higher authority.

An area where goods, services, money and people can move freely between countries, like the EU's single market.

International organisations set up by countries to tackle shared problems by working together.

The rules that govern how countries treat each other and international organisations, though they are hard to enforce.

Organisations set up by groups of countries to work together on shared issues.

The practice of countries getting involved in other countries' affairs to change what is happening there.

The idea that courts should make decisions based on law, not political pressure.

International courts that settle legal disputes between countries or prosecute individuals for serious crimes.

The legal authority a court has to deal with a particular case or type of crime.

The theory that peace is most likely when countries are democracies, trade with each other, and belong to the same international organisations.

The maintenance of rules and consequences for breaking them, which is much harder to achieve internationally than domestically.

The ability to organise and guide other countries towards shared goals in international affairs.

The power to make laws that must be followed. International organisations usually cannot do this in the way national governments can.

The period when liberal democracy and free markets dominated global politics, especially after the Cold War.

The theory that countries can cooperate and achieve peace through shared institutions, trade and democracy.

Making products locally rather than importing them from distant countries.

The idea that economic conditions and wealth drive political and social outcomes.

Which countries belong to an international organisation, which affects how fair and representative it is.

How much military power a country has, including its weapons, soldiers and defence spending.

A country's ability to protect itself from military attack.

Eight targets set by the UN in 2000 to reduce poverty, improve health and increase education worldwide by 2015.

When multinational companies take advantage of poor countries by paying low wages and ignoring environmental standards.

Large companies that operate in many countries around the world.

The way a society organises its economy, including who owns the means of producing goods.

When one culture dominates and local cultures are replaced by a single, usually Western, way of life.

The right to tell others how to behave, based on your own strong ethical record.

When three or more countries work together to tackle shared problems.

Helping a country build the institutions and identity it needs to function as a stable state.

The type of government a country has - for example, whether it is democratic or authoritarian - which affects how it behaves internationally.

The economic system promoted by Western institutions based on free markets and less government control of the economy.

The modern form of regional cooperation that covers not just trade but security, environment and politics.

International agreements that countries promise to follow but are not legally forced to.

The principle that countries should not get involved in other countries' internal affairs.

Natural resources like oil and coal that will eventually run out because they cannot be replaced.

Groups and organisations in world politics that are not national governments, such as the UN, NGOs or terrorist groups.

Shared expectations about how countries should behave in international affairs.

The economic gap between rich countries in the North and poor countries in the South.

Whether a country has nuclear weapons or the ability to build them.

Countries that possess nuclear weapons.

The danger that nuclear weapons could be used, spread to more countries or cause global conflict.

A country's ability to actually use nuclear weapons, including having the missiles to deliver them.

When countries remove barriers that prevent foreign companies from competing in their economy.

When a country that is part of an organisation is allowed to skip certain policies or agreements.

Stability and predictability in international affairs, achieved either through power balance or international rules.

The goal of preventing war and violence at the international level, which the UN is designed to promote.

The debate between those who think the world will always be conflictual (realists) and those who think cooperation is possible (liberals).

The way political ideas and institutions like democracy and human rights spread around the world.

The international security system set up after World War Two, built around the United Nations.

Policies and programmes designed to reduce the number of people living in poverty.

The international principle that the world has a responsibility to protect people from mass atrocities when their own government fails to do so.

The ability of a country or organisation to control or influence what happens in its surrounding region.

When neighbouring countries work together more closely through regional organisations and agreements.

When an organisation only allows certain countries to join, based on specific requirements.

An international order where countries follow agreed rules rather than just doing whatever the most powerful want.

Protection from threats, whether from other countries' armies or from poverty, disease and climate change.

The part a country or organisation plays in keeping peace and preventing conflict.

A world where every country must look after itself because there is no world government to protect it.

When countries change which other countries they are allied with, based on their changing interests.

A trading area where there are no barriers to the movement of goods, services, money or people.

Using a combination of military strength and cultural influence to achieve your goals in world affairs.

The idea that countries form a kind of international community with shared rules, even without a world government.

A country's right to govern itself without interference from other countries.

The power to set the rules of the game in international affairs, rather than just winning within them.

The realist idea that countries are always competing with each other to gain more power.

When countries give some of their power to an international organisation whose decisions override national laws.

The 1948 United Nations document that first listed the rights all people in the world should have.

The 1948 UN document establishing the rights that belong to every person on Earth.

The power of the five permanent Security Council members to block any UN decision they disagree with.

The Cold War military alliance led by the Soviet Union that opposed NATO.

The economic rulebook promoted by Western institutions requiring countries to adopt free markets and cut government spending.

The accusation that international organisations favour Western values and interests over those of other parts of the world.

The way Western countries, especially the US, have controlled and shaped global politics, economics and culture.

The way international organisations and media pay more attention to problems that affect Western countries.

The idea that in international affairs, if one country gains something, another must lose - there are no win-win outcomes.

A 1993 statement by Asian governments arguing that human rights should reflect local cultural values, not just Western ones.

A 1980 report calling for rich countries to give much more money and support to poor countries.

The right to govern based on being chosen by the people through free elections.

The theory that democratic countries do not go to war with each other, making democracy a path to world peace.

A constitution written as a single document containing fundamental laws and principles that cannot be easily changed.

A constitution which is difficult to change, typically requiring a supermajority or special procedure to amend.

The quality of the US Constitution that uses broad, ambiguous language open to multiple interpretations, allowing flexibility in application.

The formal procedure for changing the US Constitution, requiring proposal by Congress or convention and ratification by three-quarters of state legislatures.

Official changes to the Constitution made through the constitutional amendment process outlined in Article V.

Changes to the meaning and practice of the Constitution through judicial interpretation, executive action, or congressional legislation without formal amendment.

The first ten amendments to the US Constitution, protecting individual liberties and limiting government power in areas such as speech, religion, and due process.

Powers exercised by the federal government that are not explicitly listed in the Constitution but are implied through the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Powers held by both the federal and state governments, such as taxation, establishing courts, and regulating commerce within their jurisdiction.

Powers retained by the states under the Tenth Amendment, including regulation of internal affairs, education, and local government.

The system by which federal and state governments finance their activities through different tax sources and federal grants to states.

A system where federal and state governments work together through shared programs, with federal funding supporting state implementation of policies.

A system where federal and state governments operate independently in their own spheres of power with clear, separate responsibilities.

A policy philosophy promoting a return of power to the states from the federal government, emphasizing state sovereignty and reduced federal intervention.

The principle that government power is restricted and must operate within a framework of law, such as the Constitution.

The principle that the Constitution is the supreme law and all government authority must derive from and operate within its framework.

An approach to constitutional interpretation that limits the scope of government power to those explicitly stated in the Constitution.

An approach to constitutional interpretation that permits broader government powers through inferring implications from the Constitution's text.

A legislature divided into two chambers, the US Senate and House of Representatives, each with different powers, composition, and constituencies.

A parliamentary procedure used in the Senate to end debate and force a vote, requiring 60 votes to invoke.

A legislative process allowing the Senate to pass budget-related bills with a simple majority, bypassing the normal 60-vote requirement.

Joint committees of House and Senate members created to resolve differences between versions of the same bill passed by each chamber.

Permanent committees in Congress specializing in particular policy areas and responsible for drafting, debating, and advancing legislation.

Temporary or specialized committees created for specific purposes, investigations, or to address particular issues, rather than permanent legislative areas.

Government spending on local projects that benefit a particular congressional district, often criticized as wasteful and politically motivated.

A legislative practice where members exchange support for each other's bills to ensure mutual passage, often trading votes for local benefits.

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one party or disadvantage a particular group, affecting election outcomes.

The power of Congress to monitor, investigate, and check the actions and spending of the executive branch.

The Senate's power to approve or reject presidential nominations for cabinet positions, judges, and other senior officials.

The process by which Congress charges a federal official with wrongdoing, with the House impeaching and the Senate conducting a trial.

Congress's constitutional authority to control federal spending and revenue through taxation and appropriations bills.

Unrelated provisions attached to bills, often controversial as they allow members to pass policies with little debate by tying them to essential legislation.

Voting patterns where members predominantly support their own party's positions rather than voting individually on the merits of issues.

The formal organization of Congress into specialized committees responsible for drafting, debating, and advancing legislation in their policy areas.

Agreements between the president and foreign governments that do not require Senate ratification, unlike treaties.

Written declarations by the president attached to legislation indicating how the executive branch will interpret and enforce the law.

The president's power to withhold information from Congress or courts on grounds of national security or confidentiality of executive deliberations.

An annual address delivered by the president to Congress outlining the administration's legislative agenda and assessment of national conditions.

The president's power to reject legislation passed by Congress, which Congress can override with a two-thirds majority in both chambers.

An indirect veto where the president does not sign a bill within ten days while Congress is not in session, effectively killing the legislation.

The power to reject specific spending provisions in a bill while approving the rest; ruled unconstitutional in the US but used in some states.

The president's ability to use their public platform and media attention to appeal directly to citizens and influence public opinion.

A presidential strategy of appealing directly to the public through speeches and media to build pressure on Congress to support the administration's agenda.

A president's perception of public support for their policies, based on election victory, allowing them to claim authority for implementing their agenda.

A president in their final term unable to run for re-election, often losing influence and legislative effectiveness in their last months in office.

The organization of offices and staff that support the president, including the White House Office, OMB, NSC, and other agencies.

The immediate staff and advisors to the president, including senior aides responsible for policy and political coordination.

An executive body coordinating foreign policy and national security matters, chaired by the president and including the secretaries of state and defense.

The executive agency responsible for preparing the federal budget, coordinating administration policies, and managing regulatory review.

A system where the president relies heavily on cabinet secretaries for advice and implementation of policy, emphasizing their authority and independence.

Informal advisors and close aides to the president who exercise influence outside the formal cabinet structure.

Richard Neustadt's theory that presidential power derives from the ability to persuade others rather than command, making personal influence crucial.

The period immediately after a president takes office when they typically enjoy peak approval ratings and legislative cooperation from Congress.

The power of courts to examine laws and government actions and declare them unconstitutional, established in Marbury v Madison.

Legal briefs filed by interested third parties (friends of the court) who are not part of the case but wish to influence the court's decision.

A discretionary writ by which the Supreme Court agrees to review a case, requiring the support of four justices.

Supreme Court decisions that establish precedent and significantly impact constitutional interpretation or legal practice across the nation.

A landmark 1973 Supreme Court decision protecting a woman's constitutional right to abortion until fetal viability, establishing trimester framework.

A landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision declaring school segregation unconstitutional and overturning the separate but equal doctrine.

A landmark 2010 Supreme Court decision striking down campaign spending limits and allowing unlimited corporate and union political spending.

Freedoms and rights protected against government interference, such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process.

Legal and political rights ensuring equal treatment and protection, including voting rights and freedom from discrimination.

The constitutional requirement that government must follow fair procedures and respect individual rights when depriving someone of life, liberty, or property.

A section of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibiting states from denying equal protection of the law, used to challenge discrimination.

Landmark 1965 federal legislation prohibiting racial discrimination in voting and authorizing federal oversight of voting practices in certain areas.

Ratified in 1868, guarantees citizenship rights, due process, and equal protection; used to extend Bill of Rights to states via incorporation.

The legal theory that most Bill of Rights protections apply to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause.

Elections held before general elections to select party candidates for public office, allowing voters to choose their party's nominee.

A primary where voters can participate regardless of party affiliation, allowing them to vote for any party's candidates.

A primary where only registered party members can vote, restricting participation to those who have formally declared party affiliation.

A primary where voters can vote for candidates from multiple parties for different offices on the same ballot.

Party meetings where voters discuss and select delegates to nominate candidates, involving more active participation than primaries.

Party gatherings where delegates formally nominate the presidential candidate and adopt the party platform for the general election.

Electors who vote for a different candidate than pledged, though rare, raising questions about the electoral college system.

States where neither major party has a decisive advantage, making them crucial to presidential campaign strategy and electoral outcomes.

A 2002 campaign finance law restricting soft money and setting contribution limits, though some provisions were later struck down.

A 1976 Supreme Court decision striking down campaign spending limits as unconstitutional but upholding contribution limits.

Tax-exempt organizations named after IRC Section 527 that can raise unlimited funds for political activities but cannot coordinate with campaigns.

The political structure dominated by two major parties (Democrats and Republicans) that monopolize electoral competition and governance.

Political parties other than the two major parties that rarely win elections but can influence outcomes and shift political debate.

A long-term trend where voters reduce party identification and voting loyalty, voting more based on individual candidates and issues.

A significant shift in party loyalty among voters, resulting in new coalition patterns and changes in electoral dominance.

The diverse groups whose combined votes form the electoral base for a political party or candidate.

Organizations representing the interests of particular constituencies that seek to influence government policy through lobbying and advocacy.

A policy network consisting of executive agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups that exercise mutual influence over policy.

The movement of individuals between government positions and private sector jobs in related industries, raising conflict-of-interest concerns.

The UK leaving the EU after the 2016 referendum. Fully left in January 2020 with the transition ending in December 2020.

The treaty setting the terms of the UK's exit from the EU — covering citizens' rights, money owed, and Northern Ireland.

The law that ended the 1972 Act taking us into the EU, and copied EU law into UK law so there wasn't a legal vacuum when we left.

EU laws that were copied into UK law at Brexit. Parliament can now change or scrap them.

A 2023 law giving ministers power to scrap or replace remaining EU-derived laws quickly.

The UK–EU free trade deal signed after Brexit — no tariffs on goods but more paperwork and checks than before.

The arrangement that kept Northern Ireland following EU rules on goods to avoid a hard border with Ireland.

A 2023 deal fixing problems with the Northern Ireland Protocol — new trade lanes and more say for Stormont.

The idea that Brexit gave Parliament full law-making power back by removing EU law's supremacy.

The Leave campaign slogan — the claim Brexit would return control over laws, borders and money to the UK.

Powers letting ministers change laws without full Parliamentary debate — heavily used to process Brexit legislation.

A 2020 law creating a UK-wide single market after Brexit. Controversial for clashing with devolution and the NI Protocol.

The UK moving its rules away from EU rules after Brexit. Happens slowly because of trade with Europe.

Keeping UK rules similar to EU rules to make trade easier. Why UK law hasn't moved far from EU law post-Brexit.

TCA rules stopping the UK undercutting the EU on standards like workers' rights or environmental protection.

Parliament's supremacy as law-maker — stronger in theory after Brexit but still limited by treaties and devolution.

Sharing sovereignty with other EU countries to have joint power. The UK gave this up when it left.

The rule that EU law beat UK law if they clashed — ended by Brexit.

The idea that because a government was elected, it has the right to carry out what it promised in its election campaign. This gives the government legitimacy but is debated because UK elections rarely give a clear mandate for specific policies.

Special legal protections that allow MPs to speak freely in Parliament without fear of legal action, and prevent courts from interfering with Parliament's business. This allows Parliament to scrutinise the government without legal obstruction.

The rule that if Cabinet members disagree with a decision, they must publicly support it anyway once it's agreed. If they can't accept it, they resign. This convention has been tested by Brexit and other major decisions.

An agreement that the unelected House of Lords won't block laws that were promised in the governing party's election manifesto. This respects the democratic mandate of the elected government.

The opposition gets about 20 days each session when they can decide what Parliament debates instead of the government. This is a structured way for the opposition to challenge the government.

Written rules that ministers must follow about how to behave. When ministers break these rules, they can be forced to resign. It's enforced by the Prime Minister.

A committee set up in 2010 that allows backbench MPs (those not in the government) to control what Parliament debates on about 35 days each session, giving them more influence.

Clauses in laws that allow ministers to change or cancel other laws using secondary legislation (statutory instruments) without Parliament voting on the changes. This has become more common since Brexit and is controversial.

Laws made by ministers rather than Parliament, based on powers given to them by Parliament through Acts. Scrutiny of these is often quick and limited. Widely used since Brexit.

The idea that politicians act in their own self-interest. This explains why US politicians break party discipline to get re-elected, while UK MPs stay loyal to their party because they depend on it for their career.

The idea that politics is shaped by what a culture values. For example, Americans value individual rights (like gun ownership) while British culture values tradition and respecting institutions.

The idea that institutions shape politics. The US President has more trouble with Congress than a UK PM does with Parliament, because the US system separates powers while the UK fuses them.

A theory saying that people make choices to get the best outcome for themselves. Politicians, voters and interest groups all act to maximise what benefits them most.

An updated version of structural theory that says institutions don't just affect what politicians can do—they also affect what politicians want and how they think.

The idea that early historical choices lock countries into certain paths that are hard to change later. This explains why the US and UK have stayed different despite facing similar modern pressures.

The shared way of thinking and believing in a country's politics. For example, Americans believe in individual freedom while British culture emphasises fairness and tradition.

A theory with three parts showing how institutions matter: some focus on how people use institutions to get what they want, some focus on how history locks in choices, and some focus on culture and shared meanings.

Realism based on the idea that people naturally want power. This explains why countries fight—not because of how the system works, but because human nature wants power.

Realism based on the idea that the international system lacks a world government. Because there's no authority above states, they must compete for power—not because of human nature, but because of the system's structure.

A type of realism saying states want as much power as possible to control their region. This explains why the US and China are competing—each wants to be the strongest in Asia.

A type of realism saying states only want enough power to be safe, because if they get too powerful, other states will join together to stop them.

The idea that when one country gets too powerful, other countries team up against it to stop it from dominating. Realists say this happens naturally.

Because there's no world government, countries can't trust others to help them, so they have to look after themselves. This is why realists are pessimistic about countries working together.

Realists say countries aren't worried about whether everyone benefits from a deal—they're worried about whether other countries benefit more than they do. This makes cooperation hard.

The idea that countries should do whatever it takes to protect their interests, without worrying about morality or ideology. Realists like this approach because it's practical.

The realist idea that countries (states) are the most important actors in world politics. NGOs, the UN and companies matter less because they can't make war or enforce treaties like states can.

The idea that one dominant country (like the US after 1945) creates a stable world by providing benefits like free trade and military protection. When that country gets weaker, the world becomes less stable.

The liberal belief that countries can work together through shared rules and international organisations to reduce conflict and create a peaceful world.

The liberal idea that international organisations like the UN work because they make it easier and cheaper for countries to cooperate and trust each other.

The liberal idea that democracies don't go to war with each other. This is why liberals think spreading democracy makes the world more peaceful.

The liberal idea that when countries trade a lot with each other, they don't want to fight because war would hurt their economy. Trade makes peace profitable.

The liberal idea that countries with representative governments and limits on executive power are more peaceful because the public doesn't want war.

The liberal idea that countries can work together and both benefit, even if one country gets more benefit than the other. What matters is that everyone wins something.

A liberal theory saying the world is more peaceful when countries have three things: democracies, trading links, and international organisations.

The liberal idea that all people in the world matter equally, regardless of which country they're from. This supports human rights and helping people in other countries.

The liberal theory that countries are so connected through trade, culture and politics that military force becomes too costly and ineffective as a way to solve problems.

The liberal idea that democracies in Europe and North America form a safe zone where war is unlikely, while the rest of the world is more dangerous and conflict-prone.

The English School idea that countries act like a club—they follow shared rules and create institutions together, even though there's no world government.

The idea of humanity as one group rather than separated by countries. This is about people as individuals, not about state governments.

The English School idea that countries just need basic rules like respecting each other's borders and not interfering in each other's affairs to keep peace.

The English School idea that countries can share more than just basic rules—they can also agree on human rights and justice, which might justify helping people in other countries.

Rules that countries follow because they agree they should, even though there's no enforcement. Examples include treating diplomats as special and protecting people in disasters.

The system of independent countries that developed after 1648, where each country is sovereign, doesn't interfere in others' affairs, and they're all equal under international law.

The idea that countries follow rules because they expect other countries to follow the same rules. I'll treat you fairly if you treat me fairly.

A theory saying that what countries care about isn't fixed by power or nature—it's created by their ideas, culture and how they interact with each other.

An older liberal theory (named after Wilson) that believed countries could work together through international organisations to create lasting peace through shared moral values.

The main argument in international relations theory between realists (who think conflict is inevitable) and liberals (who think cooperation and peace are possible).

Starmerism is the cautious, centrist version of Labour politics built by Keir Starmer - pro-business, tough on immigration and law and order, but still pro-welfare and pro-public investment. It is deliberately designed to contrast with Corbyn-era Labour.

Pick and mix politics describes voters who choose policies a la carte across parties rather than sticking with one. A voter might support nationalisation of railways (left), strict immigration rules (right) and electoral reform (liberal) at the same time.

Orange Book Liberals are the free-market, pro-business wing of the Liberal Democrats. Nick Clegg, David Laws and Ed Davey are associated with this tradition. They are to the economic right of most Labour politicians.

Blue Labour is the socially conservative, economically left wing of the Labour Party. It values community, family, work and national identity, and is suspicious of both free markets and liberal individualism. Influential on Red Wall messaging under Starmer.