14 named examples with their significance, drawn from the Panther database. Read them, then test yourself.
In test mode, tap an example to reveal why it matters.
The examples
C40 Cities: Transnational Environmental Governance from Below(tap to reveal)- The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group consists of around 100 major cities worldwide representing 700 million people and a quarter of the global economy. Cities commit to reducing emissions and share best practice. Examples include London's ULEZ, Paris's pledge to reach 100% renewable energy, and New York's carbon neutrality programme for buildings.
Copenhagen Climate Summit: Failure of Global Governance (2009)(tap to reveal)- The Copenhagen Summit (COP15, 2009) aimed to replace Kyoto with a full deal including the US, China, India, Brazil and South Africa. Despite Obama's personal engagement, no legally binding agreement was reached. 192 states signed but only 'took note of' rather than 'adopted' the accord. The Green Climate Fund pledge of $100bn/year by 2020 was not met (only $10bn by 2020). Greenpeace called it 'a crime scene'.
Fridays for Future and Greta Thunberg: NSA Climate Pressure (2018-)(tap to reveal)- In August 2018 Greta Thunberg, a 16-year-old Swedish student, began striking outside the Swedish Parliament on Fridays demanding action on climate change. The movement spread globally, with 4 million people striking in September 2019 in what was the largest climate protest in history. Studies in Germany showed FFF strikes directly increased politicians' attention to climate policy.
IPCC: Building Scientific Consensus on Climate Change (1988-)(tap to reveal)- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was established by the WMO and UNEP in 1988 to provide objective scientific advice on climate change. It involves hundreds of scientists from around the world and produces Assessment Reports used by governments and international bodies. In 2007 it shared the Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore.
Kyoto Protocol (1997)(tap to reveal)- Set legally binding emissions reduction targets for industrialized countries. Aimed to promote substantial emission reductions through specific obligations.
Montreal Protocol (1989)(tap to reveal)- International agreement to protect ozone layer by phasing out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Covers 198 states. Considered most successful international environmental treaty.
Paris Agreement (2015)(tap to reveal)- The Paris Agreement (2015) committed 196 parties to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius through nationally determined emission reduction pledges.
Paris Agreement (2015) vs. Non-Compliance(tap to reveal)- International climate accord with nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Australia missed multiple emissions targets 2010s-2020s with no legal sanctions, showing non-binding nature.
Rio Earth Summit and UNFCCC (1992)(tap to reveal)- The 1992 Rio Earth Summit established the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the basis for all subsequent international climate negotiations. It created the COP (Conference of Parties) structure, distinguished between developed and developing state responsibilities, and identified CO2 as the key greenhouse gas to address. The first COP met in Berlin in 1995.
COP29 Baku and the Climate Finance Deal (2024)(2035)(tap to reveal)- $300bn/year climate finance pledged to developing nations by 2035. Developing nations demanded $1.3tn. Shows North-South tensions in global governance and limits of multilateral agreement on climate.
Kyoto Protocol (1997)(tap to reveal)- The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set legally binding greenhouse gas emission targets for developed countries but was undermined by the US refusal to ratify.
Trump's Second Term: US Withdrawal from Global Institutions (2025)(2025)(tap to reveal)- Trump withdrew from Paris Agreement, WHO, and threatened NATO commitments. $25bn+ in tariffs on allies. Strongest contemporary evidence for realist argument that states prioritise national interest over global cooperation.
Paris Agreement: Multilateralism and Its Limits (2015-present)(2015)(tap to reveal)- 196 parties. Commitments nationally determined (NDPs) - not legally binding targets. US withdrew under Trump twice. Shows that multilateral agreements on sovereignty-sensitive issues tend to be voluntary and therefore limited.
MNC exploitation(tap to reveal)- MNCs frequently relocate production to countries with low wages and weak regulations, exploiting workers and avoiding environmental standards.