18 concepts the spec wants you to use precisely, drawn from the Panther database. Read them, then test yourself.
In test mode, tap a concept to reveal its definition.
The concepts
Absolute gains(tap to reveal)- The liberal idea that countries can work together and both benefit, even if one country gets more benefit than the other. What matters is that everyone wins something.
Anarchical society / society of states(tap to reveal)- Hedley Bull's idea that even without a world government, states form a loose society with shared norms and rules that they generally follow.
Balance of power(tap to reveal)- The idea that when one country gets too powerful, other countries team up against it to stop it from dominating. Realists say this happens naturally.
Classical realism(tap to reveal)- Realism based on the idea that people naturally want power. This explains why countries fight - not because of how the system works, but because human nature wants power.
Commercial liberalism(tap to reveal)- The liberal idea that when countries trade a lot with each other, they don't want to fight because war would hurt their economy. Trade makes peace profitable.
Complex interdependence(tap to reveal)- The theory that states are linked by so many economic and social ties that conflict becomes very costly and cooperation becomes more likely.
Constructivism(tap to reveal)- A theory saying that what countries care about isn't fixed by power or nature - it's created by their ideas, culture and how they interact with each other.
Cosmopolitanism(tap to reveal)- The liberal idea that all people in the world matter equally, regardless of which country they're from. This supports human rights and helping people in other countries.
Defensive realism(tap to reveal)- A type of realism saying states only want enough power to be safe, because if they get too powerful, other states will join together to stop them.
Democratic peace theory(tap to reveal)- The liberal idea that democracies don't go to war with each other. This is why liberals think spreading democracy makes the world more peaceful.
Free rider problem(tap to reveal)- When countries (or people) benefit from something shared without paying their fair share of the cost. Climate action is a classic example: all countries benefit from a stable climate, but each has an incentive to let others bear the economic costs of cutting emissions.Use it: Central to explaining why global environmental governance is so difficult. Use alongside Prisoner's Dilemma and Tragedy of the Commons to argue that state selfishness undermines collective action. Counter with Paris Agreement's NDC approach (bottom-up self-set targets reduce free-riding incentives).
Hegemonic stability theory(tap to reveal)- The idea that one dominant country (like the US after 1945) creates a stable world by providing benefits like free trade and military protection. When that country gets weaker, the world becomes less stable.
Idealism(tap to reveal)- An older liberal theory (named after Wilson) that believed countries could work together through international organisations to create lasting peace through shared moral values.
Interdependence theory(tap to reveal)- The liberal theory that countries are so connected through trade, culture and politics that military force becomes too costly and ineffective as a way to solve problems.
International anarchy(tap to reveal)- The condition of the international system where there is no world government above states, so each must ultimately fend for itself.
International norms(tap to reveal)- Rules that countries follow because they agree they should, even though there's no enforcement. Examples include treating diplomats as special and protecting people in disasters.
International society(tap to reveal)- The English School idea that countries act like a club - they follow shared rules and create institutions together, even though there's no world government.
Kantian triangle(tap to reveal)- A liberal theory saying the world is more peaceful when countries have three things: democracies, trading links, and international organisations.