18 named examples with their significance, drawn from the Panther database. Read them, then test yourself.
In test mode, tap an example to reveal why it matters.
The examples
Alan Walters and the Thatcher Economic Policy Bypass (1989)(1989)(tap to reveal)- Alan Walters served as Thatcher's Personal Economic Adviser in Downing Street, not as a Treasury official. He opposed UK membership of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Chancellor Nigel Lawson supported ERM entry and had been informally shadowing the Deutschmark. In October 1989 Walters publicly described ERM as 'half-baked' in a published article. Lawson resigned the same month, saying he could not operate while an unelected adviser had the PM's ear. Geoffrey Howe resigned a year later, partly for the same reason. Thatcher herself was removed by Cabinet in November 1990.
Beeching Cuts 1963: Infrastructure Policy and Long-Term Consequences(1963)(tap to reveal)- Beeching Report 1963: closure of one third of UK rail network on financial grounds; rural and regional communities most affected.
Cameron-Clegg Coalition 2010-2015: Five-Year Stable Coalition Government(2015)(tap to reveal)- After the 2010 hung parliament (Conservatives 306 seats, Labour 258, LibDems 57), five days of negotiations produced a formal Coalition Agreement - the first coalition government since the wartime National Government. David Cameron became PM with Nick Clegg as Deputy PM. The coalition lasted the full five-year term (historically unusual) and involved formal power-sharing: 5 LibDem Cabinet ministers including Clegg, Vince Cable, and Danny Alexander. The coalition operated through a Cabinet Committee structure and the 'Quad' (Cameron, Osborne, Clegg, Alexander) for economic decisions. It demonstrated that coalition government can be stable and deliver a programme, at the cost of constraining PM power.
Coughlan v Minister for Cabinet Office (2022): Court of Appeal upheld voter ID requirements - ruled in government's favour(2022)(tap to reveal)- Use as a counterpoint to cases where courts rule against the government (e.g. Miller 1, Miller 2). This case shows the judiciary does not automatically oppose executive action - it upheld the Elections Act voter ID provisions despite opposition claims they suppressed turnout. Analytically: supports the view that UK courts are independent but not systematically anti-government. For AO3: use to moderate claims that judicial review is a strong check on executive power - courts sometimes validate contested government policy.
Geoffrey Howe Resignation Speech and Thatcher Removal (Nov 1990)(1990)(tap to reveal)- Howe's resignation speech 13 Nov 1990 triggered Heseltine's leadership challenge. Thatcher resigned 22 Nov after Cabinet told her she could not win. Eleven years as PM, three election victories - removed by Cabinet not Parliament. Use to challenge any claim that PM power is unconditional.
Johnson Cabinet Purge December 2019: Patronage and the Payroll Vote(2019)(tap to reveal)- Johnson won an 80-seat majority in December 2019. He immediately reshuffled the cabinet, removing 18 of 29 ministers - including Chancellor Sajid Javid, who resigned rather than accept conditions attached to the role. Replacements were predominantly loyalists with no independent power base. The payroll vote (ministers and PPSs bound by collective ministerial responsibility) expanded, reducing the number of genuinely free backbenchers.
Johnson's COVID ministerial implementation groups (2020): Hancock (health), Gove (public services), Sunak (economics), Raab (international) - bypassed full Cabinet(2020)(tap to reveal)- Use to show how crisis conditions accelerate the trend toward bilateral and committee-based government rather than full Cabinet. Johnson delegated COVID policy through four dedicated ministerial groups, sidelining Cabinet as a decision-making forum. Analytically: supports the thesis that Cabinet government has been replaced by a more presidential or bilateral model. For AO3: compare with Thatcher's use of inner cabinets and Blair's sofa government - COVID implementation groups fit a longer pattern of Cabinet marginalisation.
Policy Unit, SPADs, and Core Executive (1997-present)(1997)(tap to reveal)- Blair: 25 Policy Unit staff. Johnson: 107 SPADs (peacetime peak), 3 Permanent Secretaries removed. Starmer: Sue Gray Chief of Staff at £170k. Shows centralisation of PM power across parties.
Starmer Cabinet 2024: First Female-Majority Cabinet(2024)(tap to reveal)- Keir Starmer's July 2024 Cabinet was the first majority-female Cabinet in UK history (12 women, 11 men), with Rachel Reeves as the first female Chancellor.
The Truss Mini-Budget (September 2022)(2022)(tap to reveal)- Pound fell to 1.03 vs dollar. £65bn Bank of England intervention. Truss lasted 45 days. Budget bypassed OBR. Markets effectively vetoed government policy. Best example of limits on PM power and New Right failure.
Boris Johnson Privileges Committee Report (2023)(2023)(tap to reveal)- First PM found to have deliberately misled Parliament. 90-day suspension recommended. Johnson resigned whip before publication. Shows Parliament can censure but only retrospectively. Raises conventions question.
COVID PPE and the Public Accounts Committee (2020-21)(2020)(tap to reveal)- £10.5bn awarded without competitive tender. £4.9bn to firms with no PPE experience. PAC exposed failure but no ministers resigned. Shows tension between investigative capacity and enforcement power of select committees.
Cameron's Brexit Referendum (2016): The Elastic Model of PM Power in Practice(2016)(tap to reveal)- Cameron included the referendum pledge in the 2015 Conservative manifesto, expecting to win as he had won a similar AV referendum pledge in 2011. He negotiated a renegotiation deal with the EU (February 2016) and campaigned for Remain. On 24 June 2016 the Leave side won 51.9% to 48.1%. Cameron resigned the same morning. His successor Theresa May faced three years of parliamentary gridlock implementing the result.
Estelle Morris Resignation (October 2002)(2002)(tap to reveal)- Estelle Morris resigned as Education Secretary in October 2002, stating publicly that she did not feel she was doing the job well enough. She cited specific failures rather than external pressure. Use as the most honest recent example of individual ministerial responsibility - a minister resigning voluntarily for personal inadequacy, embodying the Nolan principle of selflessness.
Gavin Williamson: A-level Algorithm Grades (2020)(2020)(tap to reveal)- Gavin Williamson as Education Secretary used an algorithm to award A-level grades in 2020, producing results widely seen as unfair. When challenged, he blamed civil servants rather than accepting departmental responsibility. Use as a negative example of IMR - minister refusing to resign despite departmental failure, breaching the Nolan principle of accountability.
Greensill Capital and Cameron Lobbying Scandal (2021)(2021)(tap to reveal)- Former PM Cameron lobbied ministers for Greensill Capital; Foreign Affairs Committee investigated; Boardman Review found rules needed tightening
Jonathan Powell: Order in Council, Civil Servant Status, and the Number 10 Machine(1997)(tap to reveal)- Powell was appointed Blair's Chief of Staff in 1997 and given civil servant status through an Order in Council, allowing him to give instructions to civil servants in other departments. He was a key negotiator in the Good Friday Agreement process. He served throughout Blair's ten years in government. In 2024, Starmer appointed Powell as National Security Adviser - a role that gives him authority over foreign policy coordination and, it is argued, effectively marginalises the Foreign Secretary (Yvette Cooper). The Order in Council mechanism was used again to enable this appointment.
Lord Carrington Resignation over Falklands Invasion (April 1982)(1982)(tap to reveal)- Lord Carrington (Foreign Secretary) and two junior Foreign Office ministers resigned after the Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands in April 1982, accepting that the Foreign Office had failed to anticipate the attack. Use as the clearest modern example of proper IMR for departmental failure - ministers accepting collective responsibility for their department's error.