AO1: The main parties tend to be broad coalitions that have always divided roughly along party lines on votes on key issues for example gun reform or civil liberties AO2: This is largely due to the overall ideology of the party rather than a strong national platform or party discipline AO3: This does not mean that parties will always vote together as the parties are broad coalitions and may contain liberal Republicans or conservative Democrats AO1: Voting in Congress has also been affected as parties have become more polarised in recent times AO2: This has led to more partisanship when voting, particularly on approving appointments as demonstrated under Trump AO3: This means that parties are becoming more likely to vote along party lines on key issues and not just on significant ideological differences such as gun reform AO1: The rise of more divisive and populist campaigns for the nominal head of the parties- the president- has strengthened the Republican Party in particular and impacted on voting AO2: This means that voting within Congress has become more partisan with fewer Republicans in particular voting against the administration’s policies AO3: Conversely, the Democratic Party have become more divided over national leadership and so struggled at times to unify as an effective opposition AO1: Factions within the parties also affect voting behaviour in Congress AO2: This was particularly evident with the rise of the Tea Party after the 2008 economic recession, who rallied support outside and within Congress around a more ideological platform AO3: This meant that a number of members of Congress joined the faction and voted to support their policies to gain wider electoral support and to show support for wider Republican ideological views on limited government

AO1: Parties tend to be loose coalitions rather than strongly bound by ideology, and so polarising leaders within Congress or the presidency play a role in determining voting behaviour AO2: Individuals in Congress may choose to vote against a polarising leader even from their own party if they do not support their controversial policies e.g. Obamacare AO3: This means that even when a party dominates both Houses of Congress, they cannot assume that their policies will succeed AO1: Individual members of Congress may choose to vote according to strongly held personal beliefs rather than party ideology AO2: This is most often demonstrated in issues that are seen as moral such as abortion or capital punishment, but may also include more wide-ranging issues such as the extent of federalism v state power AO3: This means that the parties will not be able to influence such members of Congress to vote in a certain way, particularly if these beliefs are a central plank of their electoral campaign AO1: Members of Congress may be more influenced by lobbyists and interest groups than their party when voting AO2: Many interest groups publish scorecards for individual members of Congress who have/have not supported their policies during election time and so will take this into account when voting on key issues e.g. gun reform AO3: This means that members of Congress- particularly in the House of Representatives where there is a two- year election cycle- may be more influenced by lobbyists and interest groups due to the need to raise money and electoral support AO1: Political climate may be a stronger influence that the political party individual members of Congress represent, particularly in a time of crisis AO2: Members of Congress will seek to maintain their reputation by supporting policies that are perceived by the media and the wider public as tackling that crisis AO3: Being divisive and/or following the party line rather than supporting such policies will endanger a member of Congress’s chances of re-election